The "New" Bosporus Bridge, opened in
1988, eases the flow of Istanbul's traffic. One of longest suspension bridges
in the world,
it is the second link between the Asian and European parts of the city.
it is the second link between the Asian and European parts of the city.
SEPANG:
The experience of facing the precarious situation of an attempted military coup
in Turkey yesterday has made university professor Mohd Jailani Mohd Nor more
appreciative of peace.
Speaking to reporters at Kuala Lumpur International Airport
on his return home early today, Mohd Jailani said the situation in Istanbul,
during which gunfire was heard pounding from Ataturk airport, was an event that
he would always remember for the rest of his life.
“The atmosphere was very chaotic at the airport, all Malaysians
took the initiative to gather at Gate 303 and I then tried to calm down,” said
Mohd Jailani, who is deputy vice-chancellor of Universiti Teknikal Malaysia
Melaka.
He arrived at 5.10am by Turkish Airlines together with 32 other Malaysians after being stranded for 15 hours while in transit at Ataturk airport...
Read More…
He arrived at 5.10am by Turkish Airlines together with 32 other Malaysians after being stranded for 15 hours while in transit at Ataturk airport...
Read More…
The Star Online-Jul 23, 2016
For the president: Erdogan supporters
waving Turkish flags as they gather at Taksim square during a
rally in Istanbul following the failed ...
The Star Online-16 hours ago
DIYARBAKIR, Turkey (Reuters)
- Kurdish militants attacked a police checkpoint in the eastern Turkish province
of Tunceli overnight, killing one ...
The Star Online-Jul 15, 2016
PETALING JAYA: The attempted coup in Turkey ️has terrified a group of ... However,
the students assured The Star Online that they are safe.
British tourists
'stay indoors' as Turkish military seized control in coup
In-Depth-Daily Mail-Jul 15, 2016
In-Depth-Daily Mail-Jul 15, 2016
The Star Online-Jul 22, 2016
KUALA LUMPUR: Malaysia Airports
Holdings Bhd (MAHB) saw its share price fall to a low of RM5.80 in late Friday
trade as gnawing worries ...
The Star Online-Jul 16, 2016
SEPANG: A Malaysian academic says he
is more appreciative of peace in the country after his harrowing experience
during an attempted ...
The Star Online-Jul 22, 2016
MADRID (Reuters) - Turkey's key
tourism sector had not suffered any immediate fallout from last week's failed
military coup, Nabi Avci, ...
The Star Online-Jul 17, 2016
Mideast stocks shrug off Turkey coup
... even after an attempted coup to overthrow the Turkish government
that began last Friday rattled global ...
The Star Online-Jul 16, 2016
KUALA LUMPUR: Datuk Seri Najib Tun
Razak has reiterated Malaysia's stand in opposing unconstitutional attempts to
undermine the people's ...
The Star Online-Jul 17, 2016
ATHENS (Reuters) - The Turkish soldiers
who fled to Greece in a helicopter after a failed military coup against the
government were brought ...
The Star Online-Jul 15, 2016
Hishammuddin: I am watching Turkey closely ... Friday's military coup in Turkey saw a section of its military claiming they had seized power ...
Hishammuddin: I am watching Turkey closely ... Friday's military coup in Turkey saw a section of its military claiming they had seized power ...
Turkey is a nation straddling eastern
Europe and western Asia with cultural connections to ancient Greek, Persian,
Roman, Byzantine and Ottoman empires. Cosmopolitan Istanbul, on the Bosphorus
Strait, is home to the iconic Hagia Sophia, with its soaring dome and Christian
mosaics, the massive 17th-century Blue Mosque and the circa-1460 Topkapı
Palace, former home of sultans. Ankara is Turkey’s modern capital.
Currency: Turkish lira
Population: 74.93 million (2013) World Bank
Official language: Turkish
Facts in brief about Turkey
Capital: Ankara.
Official language: Turkish.
Official name: Tiirkiye Cumhuriyeti (Republic of Turkey)
Head of state: President.
Political divisions: 75 provinces.
Area: 779,452 km2. Greatest distances— north-south, 748 km east-west, 1,633 km. Coastline,—
3,558 km.
Elevation: Highest— Mount
Ararat, 5,185 m. Lowest - sea level along
the coast.
Population: Estimated
1996 population—63,204,000 density, 77 people per km2;
distribution, 40 per cent rural, 60 per cent urban. 1990
census— 56,473,035. Estimated 2001 population 69,262,000.
Chief products: Agriculture -barley,
maize, cotton toes, sugar beet, wheat. Manufacturing—
fertilizers, iron and steel, machinery, motor vehicles, processed foods and beverages,
pulp and paper products, textiles and clothing.
National anthem: "Istiklal Mar§i"
("Independence March)
National emblem: Crescent and star.
National motto: Yurtta suih, Cihanda
suih (Peace peace of home, in the world).
National holiday: National Day, October 29.
Money: Currency unit— Turkish
lira. One lira=100 kurun.
Important Dates in Turkey
1500 B.C. The Hittites, the earliest known inhabitants of what is now Turkey, ruled in Anatolia.
63 B.C. The Roman general Pompey conquered Anatolia.
A.D. 330 Constantine the Great moved the capital of the Roman Empire to Byzantium and renamed the town Constantinople.
1071 The Seljuk Turks conquered most of Anatolia by defeating the Byzantine forces in the Battle of Manzikert.
1326 The Ottoman Turks captured Bursa, which marked the beginning of the Ottoman Empire.
1453 The Ottomans captured Constantinople, ending the Byzantine Empire.
1783-1914 The Ottoman Empire lost much of its territory in a series of military defeats.
1908 The Young Turks revolted against the government.
1914-1918 In World War I, the Ottoman Empire allied with Germany and lost much of its remaining territory.
1923 Mustafa Kemal (Atatiirk) set up the Republic of Turkey and began a programme to modernize the nation.
1947 Turkey received economic and military aid from the United States to resist Soviet expansion.
1960 Turkish army units overthrew the government and ruled until free elections were held in 1961.
1974 Turkish forces invaded Cyprus.
1980 Army units again took control of the government.
1983 The government was returned to civilian control.
Endless lines of traffic jam both Istanbul's modern boulevards and its
ancient streets. The city is Turkey's centre of commerce and industry.
Turkey's flag was adopted in 1936. The crescent and five-
pointed star are traditional symbols of the Islamic faith
The coat of arms, adopted in 1923, bears the nation's official
name, Republic of Turkey, in Turkish.
Turkey is a country in the Middle East. It covers the
peninsula of Asia Minor and a small section of southeastern Europe.
A crowded street along the Istanbul waterfront reflects the
rapid growth of Turkish cities since the 194ffs. More than half of Turkey's
people live in cities and towns.
The Kurds of Turkey make up the nation's largest minority
group. Most of them live in the mountainous regions of the southeastern part of
the country. They herd sheep and goats and grow such crops as cotton, tobacco,
and sugar beet.
Islamic rituals, such as group prayer, play an important
part in the daily life of most Turks. About 98 per cent of the people of
Turkey are Muslims.
Education in Turkey has made rapid progress. But the nation
still does not have enough schools or teachers. Many children unlike these
youngsters, do not receive a primary education.
Vast barren plains cover much of central Anatolia. The region
receives little or no rain during the hot summer, so few crops can be grown
without extensive irrigation. Many of the region's people, like this herdsman,
raise sheep or other livestock.
The
gross national product (CNP) is the total value of goods and services produced
by a country in a year. The GNP measures a nation's total economic performance
and can also be used to compare the economic output and growth of countries.
Turkey's GNP was 108,630,000,000 U.S. dollars in 1991. (Services = 50%,
Industry = 31%, Agriculture)
Hard-working Turkish farmers pick cotton
in one of the country's cotton fields. Turkey is a world leader in cotton production,
and cotton is one of the nation's most valuable exports.
The conquest of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453 ended the
Byzantine Empire, which had ruled in Turkey since the 300’s.
The Ottoman Empire began during the 1300's as a small state around
the city of Bursa. It grew to include much of the Middle East and parts of
northern Africa and southeastern Europe.
Kemal Atatiirk founded the Republic of Turkey in 1923 and was
its first president. In an attempt to modernize the nation, he introduced major
cultural, political, and economic reforms.
Selected Videos
Selected Videos
Turkey is a Middle Eastern nation that lies both in Europe and in Asia. About
3 per cent of the country occupies the easternmost tip of southern Europe, a
region called Thrace.
Istanbul, Turkey's largest city, lies in this region of green, fertile hills
and valleys. To the east, the rest of Turkey covers a large, mountainous
peninsula called Anatolia or Asia Minor. Anatolia has several large
cities, including the capital city of Ankara, and areas of rich farmland. But
much of Anatolia is rocky, barren land.
Turkey
borders Bulgaria on the northwest; Greece on the west; Georgia, Armenia,
Azerbaijan, and Iran on the east; and Iraq and Syria on the south. The Black
Sea lies to the north, the Aegean Sea to the west, and the Mediterranean Sea
to the south.
Three bodies
of water—the Bosporus, the Sea of Marmara, and the Dardanelles—separate
Anatolia from Thrace. These waters, often called the Straits, have had a major role in Turkish history. By its
control of the Straits, Turkey can regulate the movement of ships between the
Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea.
About 60 per
cent of Turkey's people live in cities or towns. The rest live on farms or in
small villages. Nearly all the people are Muslims
(followers of Islam). Turkey is a developing country, and more than half of its
workers are farmers. However, Turkey's economy has become increasingly
industrialized since the mid-1940's. As a result, manufacturing now
contributes more to the national income than does agriculture.
Various Asian
and European peoples have ruled what is now Turkey since ancient times. During
the A.D.
1300's, a
group of Muslim Turks called the Ol began
to build a powerful empire that eventii trolled much of the Middle East,
southeasteri and northern Africa. After the abolition of the Empire in 1922,
the Republic of Turkey was c following year.
Islamic law had strongly influenced Turkish life for nearly 1,000 years. However, Turkey's new republican government introduced sweeping cultural and political reforms that discouraged or outlawed many traditional Islamic practices. Most of the Turkish people accepted the reforms. However, many others, especially those living in rural areas, resisted the changes. This conflict over the role of Islam in Turkish life continues to reflect different beliefs and opinions.
Government
Islamic law had strongly influenced Turkish life for nearly 1,000 years. However, Turkey's new republican government introduced sweeping cultural and political reforms that discouraged or outlawed many traditional Islamic practices. Most of the Turkish people accepted the reforms. However, many others, especially those living in rural areas, resisted the changes. This conflict over the role of Islam in Turkish life continues to reflect different beliefs and opinions.
Government
Turkey is a
republic. Its Constitution was adopted in 1982, following two years of military
rule. It provides for a parliamentary form of government that includes a
president, a prime minister and cabinet, and a legislature called the Grand
National Assembly. The president, prime minister, and cabinet took office in
1982. The Grand National Assembly was first elected by the Turkish people in
1983. Further general elections were held in 1987 and 1991.
The president is Turkey's head of state, commander in chief of the armed forces, and
the presiding officer at cabinet meetings. The Grand National Assembly elects
the president to a seven-year term.
The prime minister and cabinet. The prime
minister is Turkey's head of government. The president selects the prime
minister from among the most influential members of the legislature. The
members of the cabinet, called the Council of Ministers, are nominated by the
prime minister and appointed by the president. Cabinet ministers supervise the
various government departments. The prime minister must submit a proposed government
programme and the names of cabinet ministers to the legislature for a vote of confidence. The prime minister
and cabinet ministers must resign if the legislature refuses to grant a vote
of confidence in their policies.
The Grand National Assembly was given the power by the Constitution to
make Turkey's laws, ratify treaties, and declare war.
The Assembly
consists of 450 deputies elected by the voters to five-year terms. If the
president disapproves of any bill passed by the legislature, the bill is
returned to the legislature. If the legislature then repasses the bill, it
becomes law.
Court system. Courts throughout Turkey handle commercial disputes, criminal trials,
and other cases.
The Court of
Cassation reviews the decisions of lower courts. The Constitutional Court
determines the legality of laws passed by the legislature.
Local government. Turkey is divided into 75 provinces. Each has a governor appointed by
the president and a council elected by the people. Provinces are divided into
counties, districts, municipalities
(communities of 2,000 or more people), and villages.
Political parties. A coalition government has been formed by the True Path Party, which
favours free enterprise, and the Social Democratic Populist Party, which
favours a mixture of free enterprise and government controls. There are nine
other political parties represented in the Assembly.
Armed forces. About 650,000 men serve in Turkey's army, navy, and air force. Men from
20 to 32 years old may be conscripted for 18 months of service.
People
Population and ancestry. For Turkey's total population, see the Facts in brief table at the start of
this article. About 85 per cent of the people are descendants of an Asian
people called Turks. Turks
began to migrate to Anatolia from central Asia during the A.D. 900's. Kurds
form Turkey's largest minority group, making up about 10 per cent of the
population. Most live in mountainous regions of the southeast.
Turkey also
has several smaller minority groups. Arabs, most of whom are farmers, live near
the Syrian border. Caucasians—people whose ancestors came from the Caucasus
Mountains region which lies just northeast of Turkey—live in the provinces
bordering the Black Sea. Greeks and Armenians live in the Istanbul area.
About 60 per
cent of Turkey's people live in cities and towns, and about 40 per cent live in
rural areas. The number of urban dwellers has increased rapidly since the
1940's. Hundreds of thousands of people have left their farms and villages to
seek work in the cities. But the cities do not have enough jobs for all the
people. As a result, many Turks have gone abroad to work. Many Turkish citizens
work in other parts of the Middle East and in Australia, Canada, and several
countries of western Europe.
Languages. More than 90 per cent of all Turks speak Turkish, the country's official
language. About 6 per cent speak Kurdish. The rest speak Arabic, Greek, or one
of the other languages of the minority groups.
The
government began to develop the modern Turkish language during the late
1920's. For hundreds of years, the written language was Ottoman Turkish, a
complicated language written in Arabic characters. However, the Arabic alphabet
had no letters to represent many sounds used in spoken Turkish. In addition,
Ottoman Turkish included words and grammar from the Arabic and Persian
languages. Ottoman Turkish was so difficult that only scholars and the ruling
class learned to read it. In 1928, the government established a new alphabet
and eliminated most foreign words from the language. The government also
ordered a language education programme throughout the country and discouraged
the use of Ottoman Turkish.
Ways of life have changed greatly in Turkey since the 1920's, when a new republican
government was established. The government set out to make Turkey a modern
state and so began a programme to sweep away the customs and traditions of
centuries.
Since the
1920's, one of the government's major goals has been to change the status of
women in Turkish life. Men have dominated Turkish society for hundreds of
years. Before the 1920's, women had almost no civil rights. Parents arranged
the marriages of their daughters by means of a contract with the groom's
family. The bride had little voice in the matter. In addition, women could not
vote and had difficulty getting a divorce. During the 1920s, the government
outlawed the arrangement of marriages by contract and made it easier for women
to get a divorce. The government also gave women the right to vote and to
receive maintenance. Today, increased educational opportunities and exposure
to Western ideas are gradually improving the position of Turkish women.
The
government also tried to bring the Kurds and other tribal people into the
mainstream of modern Turkish life. Many Turks, as well as the Kurds, lived in
tribal groups as nomads or in isolated communities for centuries. During the
1920's, the government began to force these people to abandon their tribal way
of life as a means of modernizing Turkish society. The Kurds revolted against
these attempts several times in the 1920's and 1930's. Since then, some Kurds
adopted modern Turkish culture while serving in the armed forces or attending
school outside areas with large Kurdish populations. Today, almost all nomads
have settled in villages in rural areas. They farm, or raise livestock.
Housing varies throughout Turkey. Turks who live near the Black Sea build
thatch-roofed cottages with timber from nearby forests. In rural areas of
Thrace and northeastern Anatolia, many people have replaced their old wooden
homes with one-storey houses of concrete blocks. Many villagers in central
Anatolia live in flat- roofed houses of sun-dried brick. Stone houses are
common in southern and western Anatolia.
Most wealthy
Turks live in luxurious concrete-block houses on the outskirts of cities or in
suburban apartment complexes. Middle-class city dwellers live in old two- and
three-storey wooden houses or in concrete homes. The rapid growth of industry
in the major cities has created a severe housing shortage among workers who
moved to the cities from rural areas. As a result of the housing shortage,
large shantytowns have sprung up at the edges of Turkish cities.
Clothing worn by the people of Turkey changed dramatically during the 1920s. The
government discouraged or forbade the wearing of certain garments required by
Islamic custom. City dwellers and many rural people then adopted Western
clothing styles. However, some Turks in rural areas still cling to Islamic
tradition. Only a few men wear the traditional loose-fitting cloak and baggy
trousers. But rural women still continue some of the old clothing customs.
These women wear a simple blouse and pantaloons. They cover their heac and
often the lower part of the face with a scarf as a : of modesty.
Food and drink. Cracked-wheat bread and yogurt are the chief foods of most Turks. Turks
also eat much lamb, rice, and aubergine. Turkish cooks are especially famous
for their tasty shish kebab,
which consists of pieces of lamb, tomatoes, peppers, and onions cooked together
on a skewer. They also combine rice with almonds, meat, pine nuts, and raisins
in a dish called p ilad. For snacks,
Turks enjoy borek, a flaky
pastry stuffed with meat or cheese. A popular dessert is baklava, made of thin layers of pastry,
honey, and chopped nuts. Another pastry, kadayif,
is made with shredded wheat. Favourite beverages of the Turks include tea,
thick coffee flavoured with sugar, and a liquor called raki, which is made from raisins.
Recreation. Family outings and celebrations are the most common forms of recreation
in Turkey. The people also enjoy drinking coffee or tea at a restaurant with a
scenic view. Many men spend their leisure time in coffee houses playing the
ancient dice game of backgammon. Archery,
horse riding, soccer, and wrestling are popular sports. A Turkish form of
wrestling called greased wrestling
is a favourite event at festivals and wrestling matches. Contestants wear tight
leather trousers and cover their bodies with olive oil to make the holds more
difficult. The Turkish people also enjoy concerts, films, stage plays, and
operas.
Religion. More than 98 per cent of the Turkish people are Muslims. However, Turkey
has no state religion, and the Constitution guarantees religious freedom. The
population thus includes members of the Armenian Apostolic and Greek Orthodox
churches, Roman and Eastern Catholics, and Jews.
One of the
most controversial issues in Turkey is whether Turkish society should be
organized on a worldly or religious basis. Islamic law provides specific, rules
for all activities of life—economic, political, and social. In the 1920's, the
government made religion a private matter, restricting it to personal morals
and behaviour. But many Turks strongly objected. Today, the dispute continues
over what part Islam should have in Turkish life.
Education. About 69 per cent of Turkey's people 15 years old and older can read and
write. The government's greatest challenge in education is in rural areas. The
government spends about 10 per cent of its budget on public education, and much
of this money is used for the education of rural people. But rising costs and a
lack of qualified teachers prevent the nation from providing enough schools in
rural areas.
Turkish law
requires all children to attend a five-year primary school until they graduate
or reach the age of 15. However, this law is difficult to enforce. After graduation,
students may attend a middle school for three years. Some middle-school
graduates enter a three-year pre-university secondary school called a Use. Other middle-school graduates
enrol in a technical college or enter the work force. Many lise graduates go on
to university. Turkey has about 25 universities. Istanbul University, the
oldest and largest university in Turkey, was founded in 1453. The university
has more than 30,000 students.
The arts.
Turkey's most important contribution to the arts is in the field of
architecture. In Istanbul stands the great-domed cathedral Hagia Sophia, a
classic example of Byzantine architecture. It was built in the A.D. 500s, when
Turkey was part of the Byzantine Empire. Turkish mosques (Islamic houses of worship) were built throughout
Anatolia during the 1200s. These structures, with their thin minarets (towers), follow the Persian
and
Arabic style
of architecture. Many of Turkey's finest buildings were constructed during the
1400's and the 1500s, when the Ottoman Empire was at its height. A large number
were designed by Koca Sinan, who is considered Turkey's greatest architect.
His majestic Mosque of Suleiman I in Istanbul is one of the world's most
beautiful mosques.
For hundreds
of years, Turkish craftworkers have made excellent dishes, bowls, and other
objects of ceramics. The best-known ceramics centre in Turkey is at Kutahya,
in Anatolia. Richly coloured ceramic tiles decorate many mosques and palaces.
The art of making these decorative tiles was developed early in Turkey. The
tiles were used in mosaics
(wall decorations made of tiny pieces of glass, tile, and gold put together).
When the Ottoman Turks conquered Constantinople in 1453, they plastered over
the mosaics in the cathedral Hagia Sophia. The cathedral was converted into a
mosque. The mosaics were gradually restored after the building became a museum
in 1933.
Turkish
weavers have long been famous for their elaborately designed rugs. They made
many of the first Oriental rugs used in Europe. Turkey also produces fine
shawls and towels.
Most of
Turkey's traditional literature is written in the complicated Ottoman Turkish
language and deals with religious themes and life during Ottoman rule. Modern
Turkish literature centres largely on nationalism, social justice, and folk
history. In some works, modern writers include stories from ancient folk dramas
about the legendary puppet character Karagoz (Black Eyes). In these folk
dramas, the clever Karagoz produces much laughter as he outwits his enemies.
Land
Turkey covers
779,452 square kilometres in the northwestern part of the Middle East. Much of
Thrace and the coastal areas of Anatolia consist of lowlands and green, rolling
plains. A broad expanse of dry highlands called the Anatolian Plateau stretches across central Anatolia. The
plateau is bordered by the Pontic Mountains in the north and the Taurus
Mountains in the south.
Turkey has
several large saltwater lakes and numerous rivers. But most of the rivers dry
up during the country's hot, dry summers. In the spring, many rivers become
torrents as waters from the melting snows rush down from the mountains,
overflow the riverbanks, and flood the surrounding countryside.
Turkey can be
divided into eight land regions. They are (1) the Northern Plains, (2) the
Western Valleys, (3) the Southern Plains, (41 the Western Plateau, (5) the Eastern
Plateau, (6) the Northern Mountains, (7) the Southern Mountains, and (8) the
Mesopotamian Lowlands.
The Northern Plains cover Thrace and extend along the Black Sea coast of Anatolia. Thrace's
gently rolling grasslands make it an important farming and grazing region.
Along the Black Sea coast, farmers raise fruit, maize, nuts, and tobacco.
The Western Valleys are broad, fertile river valleys along the Aegean Sea coast. The region
produces barley, maize, olives, tobacco, and wheat. The value of its crop
output exceeds that of any other region.
The Southern Plains are a narrow strip of land along the Mediterranean Sea. A great variety
of crops, including cereal grain, citrus fruit, cotton, and olives, grow in the
region's rich soil. Farmers must irrigate their fields during the hot, dry
summer.
The Western Plateau, a region of highlands and scattered river valleys, extends across
central Anatolia. The region receives very little rainfall. Farmers raise barley
and wheat in the river valleys and wherever irriga
tion water is
available. Goats, sheep, and other livestock graze on uncultivated land.
The Eastern Plateau is a rugged area of towering mountains and barren plains. It extends
from the Western Plateau to Turkey's eastern border. The Taurus and Pontic
mountains meet in this region. Mount Ararat, the country's highest point, rises
5,185 metres above sea level, near the Iranian border. Most of the region's people
have small farms.
The Northern Mountains, or Pontic Mountains, rise between the
Northern Plains and the Anatolian Plateau. Only a few roads and railways
connect the plateau with the Black Sea.
The Southern Mountains consist of the Taurus Mountains and several smaller ranges on the
southern edge of the Anatolian Plateau. These mountains almost completely cut
off the plateau from the Mediterranean Sea.
The Mesopotamian Lowlands are fertile plains and river valleys in
southeastern Anatolia. Cereal grain and fruit grow well in the region's rich
soil.
Climate
The climate
differs greatly from one region of Turkey to another. Thrace and the south and
west coasts of Anatolia have mild, rainy winters and hot, dry summers. Summer
temperatures along the Aegean often rise above 32° C. The Black Sea coast has
cooler summers, with an average temperature of about 22° C Yearly rainfall in
coastal areas averages from about 50 to 75 centimetres along the Aegean and
Mediterranean to more than 250 centimetres in the regions that border the Black
Sea.
Northeastern
Turkey has mild summers but bitterly cold winters. Temperatures sometimes fall
to —40° C Southeastern Turkey and the interior of Anatolia have cold winters
with heavy snowstorms. Summers are hot, windy, and extremely dry.
Economy
Turkey has a developing economy. When the
republican government came to power in the 1920's, Turkey was almost entirely
an agricultural country. Under the direction of the Turkish government, the
number of factories increased from 118 in 1923 to more than 1,000 in 1941.
Today, Turkey has over 30,000 factories. But agriculture remains an important
economic activity. It provides jobs for about 58 per cent of the country's
workers. However, farm output accounts for only about 20 per cent of the value
of all goods and services produced in Turkey. Manufacturing employs only around
11 per cent of all workers, but the value of industrial production exceeds
that of agricultural output.
The national government has long been
heavily involved in many aspects of Turkey's economy. The government has
owned much of the country's transportation and communication industries, and
it has controlled other industries as well. However, private companies
have become increasingly important. During
the late 1980s, the government began a programme to reduce its ownership of
industries and to allow more private control of companies.
Agriculture. Turkey's most productive farmlands are in the coastal regions, which
have fertile soil and a mild climate. Farmers on the desertlike Anatolian
Plateau raise wheat and barley. However, the plateau region often has long
droughts that cause serious losses of crops.
In most years, Turkey's farmers produce
enough food for all the people plus a surplus to sell abroad. About 50 per cent
of the cropland is used for grain. Wheat is the chief grain, followed by barley
and maize. Large amounts of cotton are grown for both fibre and cottonseed
oil. Tobacco, a major Turkish export, is grown along the coasts of the Black
and Aegean seas. Turkey is a major producer of fruit, nuts, and vegetables,
including apples, aubergines, grapes and raisins, hazel nuts, melons, oranges,
potatoes, sugar beet, and tomatoes. Turkey's farmers also raise sheep, goats,
and other livestock. Wool is the country's most valuable livestock product.
Manufacturing. Turkey's largest manufacturing industries are the processing of food
and beverages and the production of textiles. Other leading manufactured
products include fertilizers, iron and steel, machinery and metal products,
motor vehicles, and pulp and paper products. Most of Turkey's factories and
mills are in and around the large cities in the northern and western parts of
the country.
Mining. Turkey is rich in mineral resources, but the mining industry is largely
undeveloped. The country's most abundant mineral is coking coal, which is used
in steelmaking. Turkey is one of the world's largest producers of chromite,
the mineral from which chromium is obtained. The nation also produces and
refines petroleum. Other minerals produced in Turkey include bauxite; boron;
copper; iron ore; and meerschaum,
a soft, white mineral that is used to make jewellery and tobacco pipes.
Foreign trade. The government's programme to boost Turkey's industry requires the
nation to export as many products as possible and import large quantities of
machinery and raw materials. The nation spends more money on these and other
imports than it receives for its exports. As a result, Turkey has an unfavourable balance of trade. Turkey's
chief imports include chemicals, machinery, iron and steel, motor vehicles,
and petroleum. Major exports include clothing and textiles, chemicals, cotton,
fruit nuts, and tobacco. Turkey's main trading partner is Germany. Other
leading partners include France, Iran, Iraq, Italy, the United Kingdom, and
the United States.
Transportation and communication. Turkey's road network reaches almost all the nation's towns. But many
roads are unpaved. Less than 2 per cent of the people own cars. Most Turks use
buses, trains, or taxis. The railway system links the country's chief cities.
Government- owned Turkish Airlines serves many cities in Turkey, Europe, and
the Middle East. Istanbul and Ankara have international airports. Turkey has
many natural harbours. Istanbul and Izmir are the country's primary ports.
Turkey has more than 1,000 daily
newspapers, representing many different political views. Most Turkish families
own a radio. Turkey has an average of about 1 television set for every 10
people.
History
Archaeologists have found evidence of an
advanced society in what is now Turkey before 6000 B.G The first inhabitants of
the area to be recorded in history were a people called the Hittites. About
2000 B.G, they began to migrate to central Anatolia from Europe or central
Asia.
During the next several hundred years,
they conquered much of Anatolia and parts of Mesopotamia and Syria. By 1500
B.G, the Hittites had created a powerful empire that made them the leading
rulers of the Middle East. See Hittites.
From about 1200 to 500 B.G, large areas of
Anatolia fell to the Phrygians, the Lydians, and other peoples. During the same
period, the Greeks founded many city- states along Anatolia's Aegean coast.
Between about 550 and 513 B.G, the Persian Empire seized control of Anatolia
and Thrace. The Persians held control until the general Alexander the Great,
king of Macedonia, crushed their army in 331 B.G After Alexander's death in 323
B.G, Anatolia became a battleground in the wars among his successors. Small
kingdoms rose and fell until 63 B.G, when the Roman general Pompey the Great
conquered the region. Anatolia was at peace under Roman rule for nearly 400
years.
In A.D. 330, the Roman emperor Constantine
the Great, one of the last rulers of the united Roman Empire, moved the capital
from Rome to the ancient town of Byzantium in Thrace. Byzantium was renamed Constantinople, meaning city of Constantine. In 395, the Roman
Empire split into two parts—the East Roman Empire, which included Anatolia and
Thrace, and the West Roman Empire. Barbarians conquered the West Roman Empire
in the mid-400s. But the East Roman Empire, also called the Byzantine Empire,
thrived. As a result, Byzantine emperors came to rule all of what is now
Turkey until the late 1000's. See Byzantine Empire; Constantine the Great.
The Seljuk Turks became one of the first Turkish peoples to rule in Turkey. The Seljuks
were Muslims from central Asia east of the Caspian Sea. During the mid-1000's,
they conquered Armenia; the Holy Land, or Palestine; and most of Iran. Then
they invaded Anatolia. In 1071, the Seljuks destroyed most of the Byzantine
power in Anatolia by defeating the Byzantine army in the Battle of Manzikert.
They set up an empire with Iconium (now Konya) as the capital. From this point
onward, the Christian religion and the Greek language of the Byzantine Empire
were gradually replaced in Anatolia by Islam and the Turkish language.
In 1095, Christians in western Europe
organized the first of a series of military expeditions called the Crusades to drive the Turks from the
Holy Land (see Cru- sadesl. During the First Crusade (1096-10991, Christian
troops defeated the Seljuk Turks in western Anatolia. As a result, the Byzantine
Empire recovered about a third of Anatolia. But the crusaders then left the
peninsula to fight in the Holy Land. The Seljuk Empire thus endured until 1243,
when it was invaded by Asian nomads known as Mongols (see Mongol Empire).
The rise of the Ottoman Empire. The Mongol Empire was torn by internal struggles and soon fell apart.
As a result, the Turks' influence in
Anatolia continued to grow. During the 1300's, a group of Turks called the Ottomans
began to build a mighty empire. In 1326, they seized the Anatolian city of
Bursa, which became their capital. By the late 1300's, the Ottomans had
conquered the western two-thirds of Anatolia; most of Thrace; and much of the
Balkan Peninsula, including Greece. All that remained of the Byzantine Empire
was the area around Constantinople.
In 1453, Ottoman forces led by Muhammad II
captured Constantinople, ending the Byzantine Empire. The Turks called the
city Istanbul and made it their capital.
By 1481, their empire extended from the
Danube River in Europe to southern Anatolia.
The Ottoman Empire reached its height in the
1500s. During the reign of Sultan Bayezid II, who ruled from 1481 to 1512, the
empire became the leading naval power in the Mediterranean region. Ottoman
forces conquered Syria in 1516 and Egypt in 1517. Suleiman I, whom Europeans
called the Magnificent, ruled
from 1520 to 1566. In 1526, his army conquered much of Hungary in the Battle
of Mohacs. Suleiman also expanded the empire's borders to Yemen on the south,
Morocco on the west, and Persia on the east.
The start of the Ottoman decline. After the Battle of Mohacs, European powers feared that the Turks would
overrun Europe. However, European forces successfully defended Vienna,
Austria, during a Turkish attack in 1529. In 1571, European fleets defeated
the Turkish navy in the Battle of Lepanto, near Greece. The Turks again failed
to capture Vienna in 1683.
During the 1700s, the Ottoman Empire
continued to weaken. In 1774, the Turks lost a six-year war against Russia and
were forced to allow Russian ships to pass through the Straits—the Turkish
waters that link the Black Sea with the Mediterranean. The Ottoman Empire lost
the Crimea, a peninsula in the Black Sea, to Russia in 1783.
"The Sick Man of Europe," as the Ottoman Empire came to be called, lost more territory during the
1800s. In 1821, Greek nationalists revolted against Ottoman rule. France, Great
Britain, and Russia sided with the Greeks and sent forces to fight the Turks
(see Greece (History]). The Treaty of Adrianople (Edirne) ended the
fighting in 1829. It acknowledged the independence of Greece and gave Russia
control of the mouth of the Danube River. The Turks also lost other Balkan
territory in a series of wars with Russia (see Russo-Turkish wars). But
European powers forced Russia to give up much of its gains at the Congress of
Berlin in 1878. The Ottoman Empire continued to decline, however. The Turks had
lost Algeria to France in 1830, and France seized Tunisia
in 1881. Great Britain gained Cyprus in
1878 and Egypt in 1882.
Ottoman leaders tried to halt the empire's
decline through a reform programme. They reorganized the military and improved
the educational system. In 1876, the empire's first constitution was adopted.
It provided for representative government and granted the people various
freedoms. However, Sultan Abdul-Hamid II, who came to the throne the same year,
set the constitution aside and ruled as a dictator. Government policies became
increasingly violent, and Abdul-Hamid ruled by the use of fear. Religious
persecution began to spread as members of various religious minorities became
revolutionaries. Nationalist feelings were strong among the minorities.
Ottoman officials, fearing further collapse of the already declining empire,
reacted harshly. Violent attacks took place. Between 1894 and 1918, the
Christian Armenians in the Ottoman Empire suffered an especially large loss of
life (see Armenia (History)).
The Young Turks. During the late 1890s, small groups of Turkish students and military
officers who opposed Abdul-Hamid's harsh policies banded together secretly.
The most influential group was the Young Turks. In 1908, the Young Turks led an
army revolt against Abdul-Hamid and forced him to restore constitutional
government. But the sultan soon staged an unsuccessful counterrevolution, and
the Young Turks made him give up the throne in 1909. They then ruled the empire
through his brother Muhammad V.
The Young Turks wanted to restore the
greatness of the Ottoman Empire. However, many Turkish people no longer cared
about the idea of maintaining an empire. In addition, the empire's Christian
minorities demanded freedom from Ottoman rule. And so the empire continued to
crumble. Soon after the revolution in 1908, Bulgaria declared its
independence, and Austria seized Bosnia. Italy took Libya in 1912. In 1913, the
Ottoman Empire surrendered Crete, part of Macedonia, southern Epirus, and many
Aegean islands to Greece. By 1914, the empire had lost all its European
territory except eastern Thrace.
In 1914, the Ottoman Empire entered World
War I on the side of Germany and Austria-Hungary in an attempt to regain lost
territory. In 1915, British, French, and other Allied troops tried to gain
control of the Straits so that aid could be shipped to Russia. The Turks drove
back the invaders, dealing the Allies a crushing defeat. However, the Allies
won the war in 1918.
After World War I, the Allies set out to break up the Ottoman Empire. Allied troops
occupied Istanbul and the Straits. In May 1919, Greek troops, protected by Allied
fleets, landed at the Turkish port of Izmir. The Greeks then advanced into the
country. The Turks deeply resented the Ottoman government's inability to defend
their homeland.
Mustafa Kemal, a Turkish military hero,
quickly organized a nationalist movement. Under the leadership of Kemal, a
nationalist congress met in Sivas in September to form a new provisional (temporary) government. In
April 1920, the congress organized the Turkish Grand National Assembly in
Ankara and elected Kemal as Assembly president.
In August 1920, the sultan's government
signed the harsh Treaty of Sevres with the Allies (see Sevres,
Treaty of). The treaty granted
independence to some parts of the empire and gave other parts to various Allied
powers. The empire was reduced to Istanbul and a portion of Anatolia. As a
result of the treaty, the sultan's popularity among the Turks declined further,
while the power of Kemal and the nationalists grew. In September 1922, the nationalist
forces finally drove the Greeks from the country. The Grand National Assembly
then abolished the office of sultan, and the Allies agreed to draw up a new
peace treaty with the nationalists. The Treaty of Lausanne, signed in 1923, set
Turkey's borders about where they are today.
The republic of Turkey. The Grand National Assembly proclaimed Turkey to be a republic on Oct.
29,1923,
and elected Kemal as president. Kemal and
other nationalist leaders believed that the new nation could not survive without
sweeping social changes.
During the 1920's and 1930's, the
government did away with such Islamic traditions as the Arabic alphabet Muslim
schools, the Islamic legal system, and the wearing of the veil by women and
the fez by men. It abolished the religious and civil office of the caliph. It
also outlawed polygyny, the
practice of having more than one wife at the same time. Women received the
right to vote and to hold public office. All Turks were required to choose a
family name. At the same time, the Grand National Assembly gave Kemal his
surname—Atatiirk, which means father of the Turks.
Atatiirk held enormous political power. He
controlled the Assembly and could appoint and dismiss the prime minister and
cabinet without its approval. However, some Turks opposed Ataturk's
anti-lslamic policies. The Kurds revolted against them in 1925, but the government
put down the uprising.
Atatiirk served as Turkey's president
until he died in 1938. Ismet Inonii then became president. Under Inonii's
leadership, Turkey avoided entering World War II (1939- 1945) until February
1945, when Germany's defeat seemed certain. Turkey joined the United Nations
(UN) the same year.
After World War II, the Soviet Union demanded control of territory in eastern Turkey and the
right to build military bases along the Straits. Turkish leaders turned to the
Western powers for help. In 1947, U.S. President Harry Truman announced the
Truman doctrine, under which the United States would provide aid to any
country threatened by Communism. The United States gave Turkey millions of
dollars in economic and military aid. In return for this help, Turkey allowed
the United States to build and operate military bases on Turkish soil.
The Republican People's Party, established
by Atatiirk, had governed Turkey since the establishment of the republic.
However, in 1950, the Democrat Party won a majority in the Grand National
Assembly. Celal Bayar became president, and Adnan Menderes became prime minister. Unlike the Republicans, the
Democrats encouraged foreign investments and wanted less government control of
the economy. But by the late 1950's, a rise in the national debt and
restrictions on freedom of speech had made the Democrat government unpopular.
The 1960's. Turkish military forces believed that the Democrat government had
strayed too far from Atatiirk's political principles. In 1960, army units led
by General Cemal Giirsel seized control of the government and set up a
provisional government. The military placed many former government leaders on
trial. Prime Minister Menderes was hanged. President Bayar was sentenced to
life imprisonment but was later released.
In 1961, Turkey adopted a new
constitution. The provisional government then held free national elections.
No party won a majority in the
legislature. But two members of the Republican People's Party were chosen for
the highest offices. Inonii became prime minister, and Giirsel became
president. In 1965, the Justice Party won a majority in the legislature, and
the party leader, Suleyman Demirel, became prime minister. Giirsel held office
until 1966.
The Cyprus crisis. During the 1960's, Turkey and Greece nearly went to war over the
Mediterranean island of Cyprus. In 1964 and 1967, fighting broke out on Cyprus
between the island's Turkish minority and Greek majority. Outside peacemakers
arranged a settlement. In 1974, Greek military officers overthrew the president
of Cyprus. Turkish troops then invaded the island and captured much territory.
The Turks on Cyprus later established a separate government. The Turks
declared the captured territory an autonomous
(self-governing) region in 1975, and an independent republic in 1983. See
Cyprus (History).
Recent developments. High taxes, inflation, and political unrest have troubled Turkey since
the late 1960's. At that time, radical groups of Turks began staging bombings,
kidnappings, and murders in an attempt to overthrow the government. Since the
mid-1970s, much fighting has taken place between secular and religious groups.
Each group has accused the other of terrorist acts. Since 1984, the government
has fought against Kurdish rebels in the southeast. The rebels want to form an
independent state in that region.
Control of Turkey's government changed
hands many times during the 1970's. In 1971, Prime Minister Demirel resigned
under pressure from the military. A series of prime ministers then failed to
form a stable government. In 1975, Demirel again became prime minister. In the
late 197ffs, the office passed back and forth between Demirel and Biilent
Ecevit of the Republican People's Party several times. Demirel became prime
minister in November 1979. In 1980, army leaders took control of the
government and greatly reduced the civil disorder. A new Constitution was
adopted in 1982. General Kenan Evren was named president until 1989 by a
provision in the Constitution. Turkey returned to civilian rule in 1983 when
parliamentary elections were held. Turgut Ozal of the centre-right Motherland
Party became prime minister. Ozal and his party won a second general election
in 1987. In 1989, the National Assembly elected Ozal as president until 1996.
Ozal named Yildirim Akbulutas prime minister. The general election of 1991 led
to the return of Demirel, now leader of the True Path Party, as
prime minister. In 1993, after the death
of Ozal, Demirel was elected president. Tansu Ciller succeeded him as leader of
the party and became Turkey's first woman prime minister.
Outline
Government
The president
The prime minister and cabinet
The Grand National Assembly
Court system
Local government
Political parties
Armed forces
People
Population and ancestry
Languages G Ways of life
Housing
Clothing
Land
The Northern Plains
The Western Valleys
The Southern Plains
The Western Plateau
The Eastern Plateau
The Northern Mountains
The Southern Mountains
The Mesopotamian Lowlands
Climate
Economy
Agriculture
Foreign trade
Manufacturing
Transportation and
Mining communication
History
Questions
What is Turkey's chief economic activity?
Why was a new Turkish language developed?
What are the Straits1
How has the role of Turkish women changed
since 1900? Who are the Kurds?
Who was Kemal Atatiirk?
How did Atatiirk's modernization programme
revolutionize Turkish life during the 1920s?
Who were the Young Turks?
What are the chief foods of most Turks?
What was the Ottoman Empire?
Standard of living
Standard of living usually refers to the economic level achieved by an individual, family,
or nation. It may be measured by the value of the goods and services produced
or used by the individual, family, or nation in a given period of time. Another
interpretation of standard of living is based on the goals that people set for
themselves as consumers. That is, when people have enough material things for
comfort and happiness, they have achieved their standard of living.
How standard of living is measured. There are several major ways of measuring standard of living. All
present problems of interpretation. They do not always provide enough
information or the right information.
A nation's living standard may be
estimated by determining the proportion of income that "average"
citizens spend on certain basic necessities. One basis for comparison is the amount
spent for food. According to this measure, the greater the proportion of income
spent on food by individuals in a nation, the lower the nation's living
standard. But this measure provides only basic information and does not reveal
anything about actual levels of consumption. Also, economists cannot easily
determine the proportion of individual incomes spent on food and nonfood
items.
Another commonly used measure of the
standard of living for a nation is obtained by dividing a figure called the private
consumption expenditure by the population of the nation. The private
consumption expenditure, also called the personal consumption expenditure,
represents the value of goods and services bought by individuals in the nation
over a period of time. But this measure also has drawbacks.
The measure presents a figure for the
average citizen of the nation. But such an average does not reveal the
distribution of the standard of living in the nation. For example, two nations
whose per capita (per person) consumption expenditures are valued, in
U.S. dollars, at $1,000 each year may differ widely. In one nation, all the individuals
may spend about $1,000 0 each. In the other nation, a few rich individuals may
spend much more than $1,000 each and many poor individuals may spend much less
than this. The second country has a poorer standard of living for most people,
but the measure does not reflect it.
Another drawback to the private
consumption measure is that it is not reliable for making international comparisons.
There are several reasons for this problem. For one, the official exchange rate
with the U.S. dollar may not accurately reflect the purchasing power of the
local currency. Thus, $100 may actually buy very different amounts of goods in
different nations. Second, the availability of goods and services differs
widely in different nations, a variation that directly affects the ability of
the citizens to attain their goals as consumers. Third, nations differ in their
ideas concerning consumption. The basic needs of individuals include food,
clothing, and shelter. However, there are a number of needs that are regarded
as basic in some countries and as unimportant in others. Tastes and preferences
also differ.
In addition, the private consumption
expenditure does not account for some of the social costs associated with
citizenship in an industrial society. Certain industrial nations—including
Canada, Japan, the United States, and many countries of Western Europe—are said
to have the world's highest standard of living. But they also have pollution
and overcrowding, which may make life unpleasant in parts of these nations.
Economists also measure standard of living
in several other ways. They may divide the amount that a nation produces each
year by the number of its population. They also may calculate the average
personal income earned by people in a country. This average income, less the
amount paid in taxes, shows how much people have to spend or save. It is often
adjusted to take changing prices into account. However, these measures of
standard of living have some problems and limitations.
Area differences. Standards of living vary widely across the world. The world supports
more than 5 billion people. At the U.S. standard of consumption, the world
produces enough grain for only about half the total population. By the Chinese
standard, however, there is enough grain for about 7 billion people. Western
Europe's level of grain consumption falls roughly halfway between those of the
United States and China.
In fact, people in poor countries eat more
grain than those in wealthy countries, where much grain is used as feed for
animals.
Total food supplies also differ greatly
among countries. Some of these differences have been studied by the Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO), a specialized agency of the United Nations.
For example, FAO estimated that the United States had enough food during the
late 1980's to provide each person in the country with 139 per cent of the
total calories necessary every day. China had 117 per cent of the necessary
total. Canada’s food supply was 114 per cent of its needs, but India had only
93 per cent. Bangladesh had 89 per cent of the food required for its people,
while in Mozambique there was only 71 per cent of the estimated needed minimum.
More goods per person are consumed in
industrial countries than in developing nations. In general, people in
industrial nations enjoy better clothing and housing, greater educational
opportunities, and more healthy food than people in chiefly agricultural
countries. Related articles: Consumption, Income, National income, Cost
of living, Industrial Revolution, Technology, Gross domestic product, Inflation,
and Wages and hours.
Rakyat Turkey Matang
Pertahan Demokrasi
Tindakan 'khianat' sekelompok tentera cuba merampas kuasa di Turki,
digagalkan rakyat republik itu yang turun di jalanan menyatakan sokongan kepada
kerajaan pimpinan Presiden Recep Tayyip Erdogan. Sehingga hari ini/ insiden
menyaksikan darurat tiga bulan diisytiharkan di Turki bagi membolehkan pihak
berkuasa mengambil tindakan berkesan ke atas pihak bertanggungjawab terus
mendominasi liputan media antarabangsa. Wartawan
BH Ahad, SYED AZWAN SYED ALI, menemu bual Duta Turki ke Malaysia, Basak
Turkpglu bagi mengupas insiden yang menggemparkan dunia
itu.
Wawancara Syed Azwan Syed Ali - Basak
Turkpglu
Apa yang saya cuba jelaskan iala bukan sahaja
mereka yang mengundi untuk parti pemerintah turun ke jalanan, malah mereka yang
tidak mengundi parti pemerintah juga melakukan per sama. Mereka bersama
mempertahan demokrasi kami, Presiden dan kerajaan yang tela dipilih secara
demokrasi hanya ditukar melalui pilihan raya"
Sebaik saja ia berlaku, Presiden Erdogan
meminta rakyat turun ke jalanan untuk mempertahankan negara. Seruan Presiden
Erdogan itu juga mendapat sokongan pihak pembangkang.
Seluruh negara termasuk rakyat dan
institusi seperti semua parti politik, pasukan tentera dan polis yang setia
bersatu menentang komplot ini dan kerana itu ia telah gagal.
Kami juga adalah sekutu di dalam NATO,
jadi kami minta supaya Gulen diekstradisi. Saya yakin Kerajaan AS akan mempertimbang
perkara ini selepas insiden rampasan kuasa yang gagal itu.
S: Ada laporan media menyatakan bahawa cubaan rampasan
kuasa yang cuba dilakukan dl Turki minggu lalu bertujuan ‘mengembalikan
perlembagaan, demokrasi, hak asasi manusia dan kebebasan’. Sejauh manakah
kebenaran kenyataan ini?
Semestinya tidak benar. Tiada sebarang
masalah ketidakstabilan atau keperluan untuk mengembalikan demokrasi di Turki.
Jadi dakwaan sedemikian adalah tidak berasas. Jika ada keperluan sekalipun,
ia bukan peranan tentera untuk mengembalikannya. Turki adalah negara demokratik
de- ngan institusi demokratik berja- lan dengan baik dan rakyat telah keluar ke
peti undi dua kali pada tahun lalu. Kami sudah melalui dua pilihan raya umum
berturut- turut. Jika rakyat tidak bersetuju dengan kerajaan, mereka telah
memiliki peluang sebanyak dua kali untuk menyatakan pendirian mereka. Demokrasi
adalah platform semua pandangan dibincangkan. Rakyat boleh bersetuju dengan
polisi tertentu oleh kerajaan, dan mereka juga boleh mengkritiknya. Ia adalah
proses dialog. Dialog dan saluran ber- fungsi dengan baik dan tiada keperluan
untuk campurtangan (menggulingkan kerajaan secara kekerasan). Demokrasi, bersama
semua institusinya, berfungsi sepenuhnya di Turki.
S: Kenapa pihak tentera cuba merampas kuasa dan kenapa
cubaan itu gagal?
Secara faktanya, ia bukan cubaan rampasan
kuasa oleh tentera. Kita seharusnya menteije- mahkan insiden itu dengan lebih
tepat. Ia hanya cubaan sekumpulan kecil dalam tentera untuk merampas kuasa,
bukan seluruh angkatan tentera. Kita boleh definisikannya sebagai
‘pengkhianatan’. Pegawai atasan tentera menolak komplot ini, begitu juga
pegawai pertengahan dan tentera peringkat bawahan. Jadi ia cubaan pengkhianatan
oleh sekelompok kecil tentera yang tidak mendapat sokongan daripada pihak
tentera secara keseluruhannya. Ini sebab pertama mengapa mereka gagal. Sebaik
sahaja ia berlaku, Presiden Erdogan meminta rakyat turun ke jalanan untuk
mempertahankan negara. Seruan Erdogan itu juga mendapat sokongan pihak pembangkang. Seorang komander tentera segera membuat kenyataan yang kritikal
bahawa mereka setia kepada kerajaan yang dipilih rakyat. Seluruh negara
termasuk rakyat dan institusi seperti semua parti politik, pasukan tentera
dan polis yang setia bersatu menentang komplot ini dan kerana itu ia telah gagal.
S: Sejarah menunjukkan Turki pernah melalui empat
rampasan kuasa tentera sejak i960. Adakah kegagaian ini bermakna campur tangan
oleh tentera hanya tinggal sejarah?
Buat seketikanya, kerajaan kini sedang
berdepan dengan ancaman j yang kami gelarkan ‘struktur negara selari’ di
Turki. Seorang ulama i yang menetap di Amerika Syarikat, Fethullah Gulen
adalah ketua kepada pergerakan ini. (Merujuk kepada tentera yang terbabit
dalam insiden pengkhianatan)... mereka bukan tentera Turki walaupun menyarungkan seragam yang sama. Tentera
Turki sepatutnya setia kepada negara dan kerajaan, tetapi kelompok yang
memakai seragam yang sama ini hanya setia kepada pergerakan Gulen, Kelompok ini
bukan hanya dalam tentera tetapi telah menyusup ke dalam sistem kehakiman,
pasukan polis, sektor pendidikan
dan akademik, termasuklah juga unit lain dalam sistem birokrasi. Secara
ringkasnya, mereka wujud dalam semua institusi di seluruh negara. Kerajaan
mengambil tindakan sewajamya ke atas kelompok ini. Banyak telah digantung tugas dan disiasat.
Bagaimanapun, kita amat bersyukur kerana cubaan. kumpulan pengganas yang gagal ini menyebabkan mereka
terdedah. Kini kerajaan boleh mengambil tindakan dengan lebih berkesan. Merujuk
kepada rampasan kuasa tentera, ia adalah perkara yang lalu. Rampasan kuasa
tentera tiada tempat dalam politik Turki masa kini. Seperti yang saudara
sebutkan sebelum ini (merujuk kepada empat rampasan kuasa oleh tentera), Turki
mengharungi sejarah dan pengalaman perit. Rakyat Turki telah mengharungi
pengalaman yang buruk ketika rampasan kuasa terdahulu. Rakyat Turki kini
sudah cukup matang untuk menghargai manfaat demokrasi. Mereka tidak lagi
menerima campur tangan tentera dalam politik (untuk menukar pimpinan negara).
S: Tentu ada sesuatu di sebalik Presiden Recep Tayyip
Erdogan menyebabkan kenapa rakyat Turki turun ke jalanan dan mempertahankan
kerajaan. Malah pada malam insiden cubaan rampasan kuasa terdapat post menge-
nai 29 perkara positif yang dilakukan Erdogan untuk rakyat Turki, viral di
media sosial. An- tara lain post viral itu menyen- tuh peningkatan ekonomi Turki,
pengurangan kadar peng- angguran dan peningkatan gaji pekerja. Apa komen?
I: Pilihan raya lalu menyaksikan AKP
(parti pemerintah) menang 49.5 peratus undi. Butiran yang saudara maklumkan
(merujuk kepada viral media sosial) menjelaskan kenapa rakyat turun ke jalanan.
Tetapi ia lebih daripada itu. Apa yang saya cuba jelaskan ialah bukan sahaja
mereka yang mengundi untuk parti pemerintah turun ke jalanan, malah mereka
yang tidak mengundi parti pemerintah juga melakukan perkara sama. Mereka
bersama mempertahan demokrasi kami, Presiden dan kerajaan yang telah dipilih
secara demokrasi hanya boleh ditukar melalui pilihan raya. Ia adalah 100
peratus konsensus dalam kalangan rakyat dan kerana itu mereka pertahankan
demokrasi dan kerajaan. Ia bukan hanya mengenai politik. Malam itu, Parlimen
dibom. Semua Ahli Parlimen dari semua parti politik iaitu AKP dan tiga parti
pembangkang, ada di Parlimen untuk menyatakan mereka bersatu mempertahankan
sistem demokratik dan Parlimen. Ini jelas menunjukkan kematangan demokratik
rakyat Turki. Tidak ada sebarang sokongan terhadap cubaan rampasan kuasa itu.
Rampasan kuasa oleh tentera kini tinggal sejarah dan tidak
akan berlaku lagi. Semua rakyat Turki tanpa mengira latar belakang, fahaman dan
pega- ngan politik mereka bersetuju bahawa Turki adalah negara demokratik dan
campur tangan pihak tentera tiada tempat dalam negara. Seluruh negara
menyedari perkara itu apabila.Panglima Angkatan Tentera yang beijaya diselamatkan
mengisytiharkan seluruh angkatan tentera berkhidmat untuk negara, kerajaan dan
rakyat Turki.
S: Ada laporan media menga- takan Presiden
Erdogan yang dilihat bersikap autokratik dan kebangkitan Islam di bawah
pemerintahan beliau adalah sebab ada pihak cuba menja- tuhkannya?
J Gerakan atau cubaan rampasan kuasa ini digerakkan oleh
kelompok tertentu yang ada hubungan dan jaringan di dalam dan juga luar Turki.
Tiada mana-mana laporan media yang boleh memberi justifikasi untuk percubaan
rampasan kuasa ini. Turki sebelum ini dikritik hebat kerana rampasan kuasa
tentera lalu dan telah dituduh sebagai gagal mencari penyelesaian nya. Sekarang cubaan rampasan kuasa ini gagal dan
sesetengah media kelihatan tidak senang dengan keadaan itu.
Kami menjangkakan sikap yang berbeza.
Walaupun mereka tidaklah harus menyukai atau meng- hargai polisi presiden
atau perdana menteri sesebuah negara, mereka boleh untuk mengkritiknya.
Namun mereka tidak boleh menghalalkan sebarang campur tangan pihak yang
berada di luar sistem politik negara. Kerajaan Turki telah meminta Amerika
Syarikat untuk mengekstradisi Gulen yang kini tinggal di sana.
S: Adakah perkembangan ini menjejaskan hubungan AS-Turki?
Kami adalah rakan strategik dengan AS.
Kami mempunyai hubungan ekonomi dan politik yang baik. Kami juga adalah
sekutu.di dalam NATO (Pertubuhan Peijanjian Atlantik Utara), jadi kami minta
supaya Gulen diekstradisi. Saya yakin Kerajaan AS akan mempertim- bangperkara
ini selepas insiden rampasan kuasa yang gagal itu. Ia perlu melalui proses
tertentu. Laporan media menyebut Presiden Erdogan mungkin mengembalikan hukuman
mati yang sebelum ini dimansuhkan di Turki bagi menghukum pembelot atas
permintaan rakyat.
S: Adakah ini akan menjejaskan usaha Turki untuk menjadi
negara anggota Kesatuan Eropah (EU)?
Presiden mengatakan bahawa jika ada permintaan daripada rakyat, maka Parlimen akan membin- cangkannya, dan jika ia dipersetujui oleh majoriti 2/3 di Parlimen, satu pindaan harus dilakukan. Presiden Erdogan mengatakan, jika terdapat majoriti yang cukup di Parlimen, beliau bersedia untuk meluluskannya. Perkara ini harus melalui satu proses yang panjang. Keanggotaan dalam EU adalah aspek penting dalam dasar luar Turki. Saya mengharapkan tiada double standard dalam isu ini. Kami mahu melihat sokongan kuat dari negara anggota EU terhadap Turki dengan menolak sebarang cubaan campur tangan yang tidak demokratik atau rampasan kuasa. Turki akan meneruskan usahanya untuk menjadi anggota EU.
Presiden mengatakan bahawa jika ada permintaan daripada rakyat, maka Parlimen akan membin- cangkannya, dan jika ia dipersetujui oleh majoriti 2/3 di Parlimen, satu pindaan harus dilakukan. Presiden Erdogan mengatakan, jika terdapat majoriti yang cukup di Parlimen, beliau bersedia untuk meluluskannya. Perkara ini harus melalui satu proses yang panjang. Keanggotaan dalam EU adalah aspek penting dalam dasar luar Turki. Saya mengharapkan tiada double standard dalam isu ini. Kami mahu melihat sokongan kuat dari negara anggota EU terhadap Turki dengan menolak sebarang cubaan campur tangan yang tidak demokratik atau rampasan kuasa. Turki akan meneruskan usahanya untuk menjadi anggota EU.
Presiden Erdogan
Erdogan - Sultan Turki Moden Bawa Rakyat Keluar Daripada Kegelapan
Susunan Zulhilmi Hat
Sumber: BH/24 Julai 2016
Ramai
musuh Islam membencinya, namun rakyat Turki mengasi- hinya. Kalangan penyokong
menggelarnya ‘buyuk usta’ atau ‘tuan besar’, lebih mudah lagi ‘sultan.’ Itulah
Presiden Recep Tayyip Erdogan yang sehingga hari ini dilihat ber- jaya memacu
Turki keluar daripada sebuah negara sekular menjadi negara Islam disegani
meskipun menerima cabaran hebat selepas cubaan penggulingan gagal 15
Julai lalu.
Beliau
yang lahir pada 26 Februari 1954 di kawasan kejiranan miskin Kasimpasa,
Istanbul adalah Presiden Turki ke-12 sejak 2014 yang sebelum ini disandang Abdullah Gul. Erdogan
sebelum itu berkhid- mat sebagai Perdana Menteri Turki dari 2003 hingga 2014
dan Datuk Bandar Istanbul dari 1994 hingga 1998.
14 tahun memerintah
Ketika
ini, Erdogan, 62, adalah pengerusi Parti Keadi- lan dan Pembangunan (AKP) yang
sudah memerintah Turki selama 14 tahun sejak memenangi pilihan raya pada 2002.
Ketika
remaja, beliau men- jual lemonade (air lemon) dan roti ban bijan dikenali simit
di jalanan untuk mendapatkan wang tambahan. Dibesarkan dalam sebuah keluarga
Islam yang taat, pemimpin itu tamat sekolah rendah Kasimpasa Piyale pada 1965
dan Sekolah Imam Hatip, sekolah vokasional agama pada 1973.
Beliau
menerima diploma sekolah tinggi daripada Sekolah Tinggi Eyup sebe
lum
menyambung pengajian dalam bidang Pentadbiran Pemiagaan di Sekolah Ekonomi dan
Sains Komersial Aksaray, kini dikenali Fakulti Eko- nomi dan Sains Pentadbiran
Universiti Marmara, walau- pun beberapa sumber Turki mempertikaikan jika beliau
menamatkan pengajian.
Membabit diri dalam polltik
Ketika
menjadi mahasiswa dan bermain bola sepak separa profesional, Erdogan
membabitkan diri dalam poli- tik dengan menyertai Kesatu- an Pelajar Kebangsaan
Turki, sebuah kumpulan tindakan anti-komunis.
Pada
1976, beliau menjadi ketua belia lantang cawangan Parti
Penyelamat Islam Kebangsaan (MSP) diketuai Necmettin Erbakan, yang kemudian
mengasaskan Parti Kemakmuran. Di sinilah ber- mulanya kerjaya panjang Erdogan
dalam politik. Erbakan menjadi Perdana Menteri Turki pada 1996 hingga 1997.
Kerjaya
politik Erbakan bagaimanapun tidak lama apabila rampasan kuasa pada 1980 an
oleh tentera memaksa- nya disingkirkan.
Sejak
itu, Erdogan yang bekerja di sektor swasta meninggalkan MSP dan menyertai
kerahan tentera seperti diwajibkan ke atas golongan belia lelaki Turki. Beliau
mendirikan rumah tangga pada 4 Februari 1978 dengan Emine Gulbaran yang ditemuinya
dalam satu konvensyen wanita.
Pada
1985, Erdogan bertanding dalam pilihan raya tempatan dan terpilih sebagai
wakil parlimen dan calon jawatan Datuk Bandar di daerah Beyoglu, bagaimana
pun
nasib tidak menyebelahinya apabila tewas.
Pada
1994, Erdogan yang memegang tiket politik Erbakan akhirnya berjaya dipi- lih
sebagai Datuk Bandar Istanbul sebelum melangkah lebih jauh dalam kerjaya
sehingga dipilih sebagai pengerusi AKP hingga ke hari ini.
Tegas dan tenang
Erdogan
sangat dikenali rakan dan musuhnya sebagai seorang yang tegas dan bersikap
tenang dalam semua perkara.
Perkara
ini dibuktikan dalam Forum Ekonomi Dunia (WEF 2009) di Davos, Switzerland,
apabila beliau menem- pelak Presiden Israel, Shimon Peres mengenai isu pembunuhan
rakyat Palestin di Gaza. Beliau dianggap sebagai wira oleh rakyatnya kerana
lantang mengecam Israel dalam isu pencerobohan wilayah terke- pung itu.
Selain
beliau yang tegas dalam isu penduduk Palestin, isterinya, Emine pula bersim-
pati dengan nasib pelarian Rohingya dan bertindak mengunjungi Myanmar pada Ogos
2012.
Beliau
malah menyumbang AS$l juta (RM3.66 juta) kepada Pertubuhan Migrasi Antara- bangsa (IOM)
dan Suruhanjaya Pertubuhan Bangsa-Bangsa Bersatu Bagi Orang Pelarian (UNHCR)
khusus bagi membela nasib orang hanyut itu.
Namun,
keberanian Erdogan dicemburui musuhnya termasuk media barat apabila
menuduhnya mengamal- kan rasuah, selain ancaman pemberontak Parti Buruh Kurdis
(PKK), isu jet pejuang Russia, kejadian pengeboman meningkat di Turki dan terbaru
cubaan rampasan kuasa tentera.
Presiden Erdogan
Recep Tayyp Erdogan Lahir: 26 Februari 1954 di Istanbul
Pendidikan: Sekolah Imam Hatip dan Universiti Universiti Marmara
Agama: Islam Sunnah
Isteri: Emine Gulbaran, 60,
Anak: Ahmet Burak, 37,; Necmettin Bilal, 35,; Esra, 35, dan Sumeyye, 31.
Parti politik: Parti Penyelamat Nasional (1980 an), Parti Kebajikan (1983- 1998), Parti
Keadilan dan Pembangunan (AKP).
Presiden AKP
hingga sekarang.
Pembangunan dan pembaharuan dilakukan Erdogan
Beribu-ribu masjid baharu dibina
Ratusan universiti, sekolah dan pusat kesihatan dibina –
arangan bertudung dimansuhkan
Kolej penuntut lelaki dan wanita diasingkan
Sejuta pelajar mendaftar di Sekolah Imam Hatip
Mewajibkan Pendidikan Agama
Tahap umur belajar al-Quran dihapuskan
Mengehadkan tempat d?n pengiklanan penjualan arak
Memperkasakan perbankan Islam
Ekonomi Turki melonjak dari kedudukan ke-111 kepada 16
Turki membiayai kira-kira
ilmuwan Islam
menjelang tahun 2023
Lapangan Terbang Antarabangsa Turki meraih anugerah penerbangan terbaik dunia
dalam tempoh tiga tahun berturut-turut
Dalam tempoh 10 tahun akan datang, Turki menanam 770 juta pohon Harjia dan
berbuah untuk pembangunan alam sekitar
Erdogan lantang mengecam Israel mengenai pembunuhan rakyat Palestine.
Hukuman mati menanti pengkhianat
Mengulas cubaan penggulingan gagal itu, Erdorgan dipetik
sebagai berkata, pengkhianat yang melancarkan cubaan rampasan itu bakal
berdepan hukuman berat apabila hukuman mati yang dimansuhkan sebelum ini akan
diperkenalkan semula.
“Mereka yang bertanggung jawab akan
membayar harga yang tinggi kerana mela- kukan pengkhianatan,” katanya sambil
menuduh ulama Turki berpusat di Ame- rika Syarikat, Fethullah Gulen, sebagai
dalang utama rampasan itu yang meragut 232 nyawa.
Gulen pernah menjadi sekutu rapat Erdogan
namun keadaan berubah seba- liknya apabila ulama itu menuduh Erdogan
mengamalkan rasuah dalam peme- rintahannya. Kesannya, Erdogan menutup sekolah
persendirian Hizmet milik Gulen di seluruh negara.
Satu ketika dulu, Erdogan pernah
menggunakan pengikut Gulen untuk mengekang kuasa sekular dalam tentera, namun
kini Presiden Turki itu menahan mereka atas dakwaan menyokong cubaan
penggulingan gagal dan setakat ini lebih individu
daripada anggota tentera sehingga penjawat awam ditahan atau dipecat.
Rampasan kuasa baru-baru ini dilihat
seolah-olah musuhnya mahu menyingkirkan pemimpin Islam seperti Erdogan supaya
tidak melaksanakan sepe- nuhnya negara Islam sejak berakhirnya pemerintahan
sekular Mustafa Kamal Ata- turk didokong tentera dengan kejatuhan Empayar
Uthmaniyyah.
Sumber: BH/24 Julai 2016
Sumber: BH/24 Julai 2016
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