Socialization, Socialism And Social Change

Socialization, in the behavioural sciences, refers to the complex process by which individuals come to learn and perform behaviour expected of them by society. So­cializationteaches habits, ideas, attitudes, and values. Behavioural scientists—anthropologists, psychologists, and sociologists—regard socialization as one of the principal ways by which societies perpetuate them­selves. Through socialization, culture is transmitted from one generation to the next.

Learning plays an important part in socialization. A person must acquire a wide range of information and skills to participate in the activities of a family, a play group, a school group, a business, or a political system. From the family, children learn such basic functions as speaking, toilet management, and eating properly. They also learn the basic values, beliefs, and goals of the fam­ily. For example, they learn what it is to be male or fe­male, what to believe as truth and falsehood, and what to value in human relations.

Socialization is deliberate when individuals are told what to do or how to act. But much socialization is un­conscious. For example, children learn many basic atti­tudes and values by observing other people, especially their parents or older brothers or sisters.

Behavioural scientists study socialization because of three basic characteristics that are common to all human beings. First, human infants cannot live unaided and must depend heavily on others. Second, human beings must learn most of the behaviour necessary for survival. Third, people must learn to control their relations with one another by living according to shared values and roles.

In most societies, socialization begins in infancy and continues throughout a person's life. Other agencies, es­pecially the school, have taken over some of the social­ization functions of the family. As individuals advance through successive stages of school, they continually discard some attitudes and roles and take on new ones. Other important elements that influence an individual's social behaviour include friends and co-workers, reli­gious institutions, television, films, and various kinds of reading matter.

While the family and other institutions have a strong impact on the child, the individual also influences these institutions in important ways. For example, the infant in­fluences its parents through its ingenuity, moods, and wants. Thus, socialization should not be viewed as a one-way process. At the same time, individuals continu­ously socialize one another to their separate expecta­tions. See also Culture; Social psychology; Social role. Society. See Culture (Characteristics of culture); Soci­ology.

Socialism

Socialism is an economic system, a political move­ment, and a social theory. Most socialists believe that national or local governments, rather than individuals, should own a nation's resources and control their use. Socialism calls for public ownership of land, factories, and other basic means of production.

The idea of collective ownership (common owner­ship) of property dates at least from the time of ancient Greece. In the 300's B.C., the Greek philosopher Plato proposed that a ruling class own everything in common, putting the welfare of the state above all personal de­sires. Since ancient times, a number of groups have had some form of system involving the community owner­ship of property.

The word socialism was first used in the early 1800's. At that time, socialism meant opposition to the selfish­ness that some people thought was the root of any capi­talist, or free enterprise, system. During the early 1800's, the Industrial Revolution in western Europe caused se­vere social problems. For example, many factory owners made their employees work long hours with low pay and under unhealthy conditions. Socialists claimed that public ownership or control of productive resources would ensure fairer treatment for all members of soci­ety. See Industrial Revolution (Life during the Industrial Revolution).

Today, socialists disagree on many important points. Some want a strong central government running the economy. Other socialists favour as much local control as possible. Still others believe that there should be no government in a socialist society. Some socialists argue that socialism can be achieved only through revolution and violence. Others believe that socialism must come gradually, within the framework of existing political in­stitutions.

Most countries today have socialist political parties. Many nations have socialist governments, and almost all countries have adopted some of the ideas and methods that have been part of socialist programmes. In addition, the countries in which Communist parties control the government are sometimes called socialist, but most so­cialists reject this use of the term.

This article describes what socialism is and how it de­veloped. For more information on socialism and other economic and political institutions, see the World Book articles on Capitalism; Communism; Democracy; Eco­nomics; and Government.

Socialism and Communism

The words socialism and communism once meant about the same thing—a society based on public owner­ship of the means of production. Today, people draw sharp distinctions between the two terms.

Members of Communist parties consider socialism as a stage in the development of Communist societies. During this stage, a Communist party is in power in a country, most private property has been eliminated, and the economy is run on the basis of a national production plan. However, the nation js not yet rich enough to give its citizens all the material be'nefits they need, and the government must coerce (force) people to work hard for little reward. In a later stage, the nation will be wealthy enough to satisfy everyone's economic wants. That stage of development is Communism. Communists claim that coercion by the government will disappear under Com­munism.

Democratic socialists—that is, socialists in non- Communist countries—do not accept the Communist definition of socialism. Most of them believe that some government coercion is necessary because some peo­ple must be forced to be good citizens. Democratic so­cialists reject most of the methods used by Communist parties, such as revolution and other forms of violence as means of gaining power. Democratic socialists also oppose dictatorial methods of running the state after they are in power. Unlike Communists, democratic so­cialists believe in democratic processes and do not wish to get rid of all opposition parties. They care more about the fair distribution of goods and services than about rapid economic growth. Democratic socialists also fa­vour democratic methods for determining what goods are to be produced.

Coals and methods of socialism

Socialists claim that free enterprise systems are ineffi­cient and wasteful. They believe that capitalism leads to such problems as unemployment, poverty, business cy­cles, and conflicts between workers and the owners of the means of production. To solve these problems, so­cialists believe that a nation's wealth must be distributed more equally and justly. They strongly oppose social in­equality and discrimination. Socialists aim for a society based on cooperation and brotherhood rather than on competition and self-interest.

Socialism proposes to fulfil its aims by placing the major means of production in the hands of the people, either directly or through the government. Ownership may be by national or local government or by coopera­tives. Many socialists favour a mixed economy— govern­ment ownership of basic industries and private owner­ship of many other businesses. The private businesses, however, would be controlled by regulations imposed by the government.

Socialists believe that a country's resources should be used according to an overall economic plan formulated by manufacturers, farmers, workers, and government of­ficials working together. By such planning, socialists hope to adjust production to the needs of the people. Although the forces of supply and demand may influ­ence production and prices under the socialist eco­nomic plan, many decisions regarding how much to produce and what to charge will be made by political authorities.

Socialists disagree over how much wealth should be left in private hands and how to deprive the rich of their excess property. Many socialists call for redistribution of wealth through taxation. They favour laws to help the aged, the unemployed, the disabled and handicapped,

widows, dependent children, and other people in need. Many socialists believe that the government should also provide free education and medical service to everyone and should help all citizens obtain safe and sanitary housing at rents they can afford.

Development of socialism

Early socialists. During the early 1800's, several writ­ers and reformers criticized industrialism as the cause of great hardship and suffering among working people. Such men as Robert Owen of the United Kingdom and Charles Fourier and the Comte de Saint-Simon of France made various proposals for setting up communities with ideal social and economic conditions. Owen and follow­ers of Fourier established short-lived cooperative settle­ments. These socialists were frequently called Utopians. This term comes from the book Utopia (1516) by the English statesman Saint Thomas More. Utopia is an ac­count of an ideal society that provides equality and jus­tice for all its members.

Karl Marx, a German economist and social philoso­pher, became the most influential socialist of the 180ffs. Marx's basic socialist ideas were first expressed in the Communist Manifesto (1848), which he wrote with his friend Friedrich Engels. Marx called his socialism scien­tific socialism to distinguish it from utopian socialism.

He believed that all history is a series of struggles be­tween the ruling and working classes. Marx taught that capitalism would be replaced by socialism. He pre­dicted that the ruling class would be overthrown. The victorious working class would then set up a society based on common ownership of the means of produc­tion, not on economic privilege. For a fuller discussion of Marx's ideas, see Marx, Karl; and Communism (Marx­ism).

The international socialist movement. During the late 1800s, several socialist political parties were formed in Europe and North America. In time, these parties be­came united in an international organization with a sin­gle set of beliefs inspired by the writings of Marx. Be­tween 1890 and 1914, the socialist movement grew strong, and socialist parties nearly won control of the government in several countries. But beneath the seem­ing strength, deep divisions existed. The movement in­cluded moderates, radicals, and revolutionaries. In addi­tion, some socialist leaders rejected the doctrines of Marx. The international organization even included groups or parties that were non-Marxist. For example, the Fabian Society, a socialist group in the United King­dom, derived its beliefs from Christian ideas and long- established traditions for achieving reforms.

AfterWorld War I began in 1914, the international so­cialist movement collapsed. Socialist leaders had to de­cide whether they were loyal to the movement or to their country, regardless of who governed it and how. Most socialist leaders decided to place patriotism above their socialist convictions.

Following the Russian revolution of 1917, revolution­ary socialists founded new parties, which they called Communist parties. Since then, democratic socialists and Communists have become bitter enemies. Most so­cialists today are more critical of the writings of Marx than were early socialists. As a result, socialism can no longer be described as a Marxist ideology (set of doc­trines), though many socialists consider Marx one of many important teachers.

In the United States, for various reasons, socialism has never been as strong as in Europe. In Europe, social­ism was largely a working-class movement. But the la­bour movement began later in the United States and grew slowly. Many scholars believe that labour devel­oped slowly in the United States because the frontier and the untapped wealth of the country provided greater opportunities—even for the poor—than Europe did. Other scholars believe that American ideas of free­dom and individualism weakened the appeal of social­ism.

Socialism today. Most socialists are firmly commit­ted to work within the framework of a country's consti­tution. They seek to cooperate with all parties and re­gard socialism as representing broad popular concerns, not just those of the workers. Many socialists do not in­sist on placing all major means of production under public ownership. They are content to place private business under government regulation. Most socialists oppose Communism.

Many countries have socialist parties. In some coun­tries, a socialist party runs the government. In other countries, socialists are members of a coalition govern­ment. Political parties whose policies are based on so­cialist ideas have formed several administrations in the United Kingdom and Norway since the early 1900's. Dur­ing the late 1900's, Socialist parties or Socialist-led coali­tions have held power in France, Spain, Portugal, Italy, and Greece. Socialist parties have also governed many countries in Africa, the Middle East, and Southeast Asia. Other nations with strong Socialist parties include Ar­gentina, Australia, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Germany, India, Israel, japan, and New Zealand.

No countries today are purely socialist. Even coun­tries governed by Communist parties still have some free enterprise, though most resources are in public hands.

Related articles: Bebel, August; Collectivism; Cooperative; Engels, Friedrich; Fabianism; Fourier, Charles; The International; Nationalization; Owen (family); Proudhon, Pierre); Saint-Simon, Comte de; Syndicalism; and Webb, Sidney and Beatrice

Sociology

Sociology is the study of the individuals, groups, and institutions that make up human society. The field of so­ciology covers an extremely broad range that includes every aspect of human social conditions. Sociologists observe and record how people relate to one another and to their environments. They also study the formation of groups; the causes of various forms of social behav­iour; and the role of churches, schools, and other insti­tutions within a society. Sociology is a social science and is closely related to anthropology, psychology, and other social sciences.

Most sociological studies deal with the predominant attitudes, behaviour, and types of relationships within a society. A society is a group of people who have a simi­lar cultural background and live in a specific geographi­cal area. Each society has a social structure— that is, a network of interrelationships among individuals and groups. Sociologists study these various relationships in order to determine their effect on the overall function of the society.

Sociological data can also help explain the causes of crime, poverty, and other social problems. The field of applied sociology deals with the use of this knowledge to develop solutions for such problems.

Sociologists formulate theories based on observa­

tions of various aspects of society. They use scientific methods to test these theories, but few sociological studies can be conducted in a laboratory under con­trolled conditions.

The sociologist's ability to form indisputable conclu­sions is also limited by the diverse and changing nature of human beings and society. As a result, many socio­logical studies are less precise than those in the biologi­cal and physical sciences.

What sociologists study

Many elements determine the general social condi­tions of a society. These elements can be classified into five major areas: (1) population studies, 12) social behav­iour, (3) social institutions, (4) cultural influences, and (5) social change.

Population studies determine the general social pat­terns of a group of people living within a certain geo­graphical area. There are two chief kinds of population studies, demography and human ecology.

Demography is the systematic study of the size, com­position, and distribution of human populations. De­mographers compile and analyse various statistics, in­cluding people's ages, birth and death rates, ethnic backgrounds, migration patterns, and racial distribution. Many demographic studies explain the effects of social conditions on the size and composition of a population. For example, several studies of the 1900's found a direct correspondence between the growth of industrializa­tion and a decline in the death rate.

Human ecology deals mainly with the structure of urban environments and their patterns of settlement and growth. Studies in human ecology explain why and how cities grow and change.

Major subdivisions of sociological study

Criminology is the study of criminal behaviour and the causes of crime. Criminologists also develop various methods of crime prevention.

Demography is the study of the size, composition, and distri­bution of human populations.

Human ecology deals with the structure of urban environ­ments and their patterns of settlement and growth.

Political sociology is concerned with how people gain and use power within a political system, and the rise of various political movements.

Social psychology deals with the individual's social behaviour and relationships with others in a society.

Sociolinguistics studies the way people use language in a vari­ety of social situations.

Sociology of education is concerned with understanding how educational institutions transmit a society's cultural attitudes and traditions.

Sociology of knowledge is the study of a society s myths, phi­losophies, and sciences and their effect on attitudes and behav­iour.

Sociology of law studies the relationships between a society s legal code and various social patterns, such as economic con­cerns, cultural traditions, and family relationships.

Sociometry deals with the scientific measurement of the rela­tionships among group members. A diagram called a sociogram is used to indicate the extent and intensity of each of these rela­tionships.

Urban sociology deals with the social conditions and prob­lems of cities. This field includes the study of race relations and city planning.

Social behaviour is studied extensively in the field of social psychology. Social psychologists usually work with small groups and observe attitude change, con­formity, leadership, morale, and other forms of behav­iour. They also study social interaction, which is the way the members of a group respond to one another and to other groups. In addition, social psychologists examine the results of conflicts between groups, such as crime, prejudice, and war.

In most societies, standards of behaviour are passed on from one generation to the next. Social psychologists observe how people adjust their behaviour to conform to these standards, a process called socialization.

Social psychologists also study social roles and status. A social role is the function or expected behaviour of an individual within a group. Status is a person's impor­tance or rank.

Social institutions are organized groups of people that perform a specific function within a society. These institutions include business organizations, churches, governments, hospitals, and schools. Each has a direct effect on the society in which it exists. For example, the attitudes and goals of an entire society are influenced by the transmission of learning and knowledge in educa­tional institutions. Some branches of sociology study the influence of one particular type of institution. These branches include the sociology of education and the so­ciology of law.

Each social institution has its own social structure and standards of acceptable behaviour. Sociological studies have been conducted in factories, mental hospitals, pris­ons, and other institutions. Sociologists then compare the social conditions within these institutions with those of the entire society.

Cultural influences help unify a society and regulate its social life. These cultural influences also give people

a common base of communication and understanding. The culture of a society includes its arts, customs, lan­guage, knowledge, and religious beliefs. Sociologists study the effect of each of these elements on social con­ditions and behaviour. For example, religious beliefs may determine the moral code of a society. Sociological studies focus on the way this code regulates social be­haviour and the role it plays in the establishment of a so­ciety's laws.

Social change is any significant alteration in the so­cial conditions and patterns of behaviour in a society. Such a change may be caused by fashions, inventions, revolutions, wars, or other events and activities. Techno­logical developments have led to many social changes of the 1900's. A number of sociological studies have con­centrated on the changes in education, social values, and settlement patterns that occur in newly industrial­ized nations.

Methods of sociological research

Sociological theories must be tested and verified be­fore they can be considered reliable. Sociologists use three chief methods to test theories. These methods are (1) surveys, (2) controlled experiments, and (3) field ob­servation.

Surveys, sometimes called public opinion polls, are the most widely used method of sociological research. They measure people's attitudes about various subjects. Sociologists often use surveys to determine the relation­ship between a certain viewpoint and such factors as age, education, and sex.

Most surveys are conducted by the use of question­naires prepared by sociologists. These questionnaires consist of clearly worded questions about the partici­pant's background and his or her opinions on the sub­ject being studied.

The sociologist selects the group of individuals to be questioned. This group, called a sample, may be chosen at random, or the group may be selected to represent a particular segment of the population. The staff of the so­ciologist questions the participants personally or by telephone, or posts the questionnaires to them. In most cases, sociologists use computers to analyse the results of surveys.

Surveys provide information on voting behaviour, consumer buying habits, racial prejudice, and many other human attitudes and activities. Surveys are also used by sociologists to pinpoint particular social prob­lems and to evaluate social conditions within a specific community.

Controlled experiments are used primarily in the study of small groups. Some of these experiments are conducted in a laboratory. In most cases, two or more highly similar groups of people are studied. The groups differ in one principal feature, which is called a variable. The variable may be age, sex, economic background, or any other identifiable characteristic. The sociologist ob­serves each group to learn if the variable produces a significant difference in the attitudes and behaviour of its members.

For example, a sociologist may theorize that groups of people of the same sex solve problems more effec­tively than coeducational groups. To test this theory, three groups might be studied. The first group would consist only of women, the second of men, and the third of an equal number of both. The groups must be similar in such factors as age, education, and social back­ground. All the groups receive identical problems and instructions. If the groups composed of members of one sex perform better consistently, the theory has been ver­ified. In most cases, however, sociologists test theories more extensively before forming any general conclu­sions.

Field observation usually involves a sociologist's liv­ing in the community that he or she is studying. Informa­tion is gathered primarily through observation and con­versations with members of the community. The sociologist also may participate in various social func­tions and political activities during the period of study.

The community's institutions and culture are studied, along with the attitudes, behaviour, and interactions of its members. The sociologist then draws general con­clusions about the community's social conditions and records these findings in a report called a case study. Case studies provide reference material for sociologists who are studying similar communities. Such information is also used in comparative sociology, a field concerned with examining the similarities and differences of two types of societies.

Field observation provides first-hand information about a group of people, but it is the least reliable method of testing sociological theories. Many conclu­sions that can be drawn about one community do not apply to other communities. In addition, the sociolo­gist's personal reactions to the individuals being ob­served may influence the conclusions.

History

Early sociological thought. The study of human so­ciety dates back to ancient times, but it was not consid­

ered a science until the early 1800's. At that time, the French philosopher Auguste Comte created the term sociology. Comte developed the theory of positivism, which held that social behaviour and events could be observed and measured scientifically.

Many sociological theories were suggested during the 1800's. Several of them were single-factor theories, which emphasized one factor as the controlling element of the social order. One of the most historically impor­tant single-factor theories was economic determinism, which was developed by two German social thinkers, Friedrich Engels and Karl Marx. This theory states that economic factors control all social patterns and institu­tions. It forms much of the basis of Communism (see Communism).

During the mid-1800s, sociological thought was greatly influenced by the theory of evolution. The British philosopher Herbert Spencer concluded that the devel­opment of human society was a gradual process of evo­lution from lower to higher forms, much like biological evolution.

Development of social research. During the late 1800's, many sociologists rejected social evolution and shifted to a more scientific study of society. The French sociologist Emile Durkheim was one of the first social thinkers to use scientific research methods. Durkheim conducted an extensive study of suicide. He collected demographic information from various nations and studied the relationship between their suicide rates and such factors as religion and marital status.

In the early 1900's, the German sociologist Max Weber concluded that sociological theories must be generalizations. He devised a method of study in which he compiled all the typical characteristics of a specific group of people. These characteristics formed what Weber called an ideal type. He then came to general conclusions about the group as a whole, based on what he knew about this ideal type.

Several new schools of sociological thought gained prominence during the 1920's. They included diffusion- ism, functionalism, and structuralism. Diffusionism stressed the influence that individual societies have on each other. Diffusionists believed that social change oc­curred because a society adopted various cultural traits of other societies.

Functionalism viewed society as a network of institu­tions, such as marriage and religion, that are related to and dependent on one another. According to this the­ory, a measurable change in one institution would cause a change in the others.

Structuralism emphasized the social structure as the major influence on society. Structuralist thinkers devel­oped the idea that social roles and status determined much human behaviour.

A sociological theory called structural-functionalism also developed during the 1920's. This philosophy, which included elements of both structuralism and functionalism, was advanced in the 1930's by the Ameri­can sociologist Talcott Parsons. Structural-functionalism dominated sociology until the mid-1900's.

Modern sociology. During the mid-1900's, sociology became increasingly specialized. Sociologists moved from studying overall social conditions to studying specific groups or types of people within a society.

Such groups as business executives, homemakers, and street gangs have been the subject of sociological studies.

Sociologists also began to rely more heavily on scien­tific research methods. The survey method has been greatly improved, and the use of computers has in­creased the efficiency of evaluating survey results. Soci­ologists also have developed better methods of select­ing samples.

Social psychology is one of the most rapidly expand­ing fields of sociology. Sociologists have concentrated on the study of small groups, whose social behaviour often reflects that of an entire society. Social psycholo­gists have expanded their use of controlled experi­ments, which has increased the reliability of their studies.

Changes in lifestyles and social conditions during the 1960's and 1970's have been the subject of many socio­logical studies. Various theories have been formed on such developments as the drug culture, the youth move­ment, and the feminist movement.

Since the 1950's, a growing number of sociologists have called for greater efforts in the field of applied so­ciology. These men and women believe that sociologists have an obligation to work toward the solution of social problems and the establishment of social justice.

Related articles:

Sociologists: Merton, Robert K.; Myrdal, Gunnar; Pareto, Vilfredo; Spencer, Herbert; Weber, Max;

Related studies: Social psychology,  Social science,  Social work, and  Sociobiology

Other related articles:

Caste

City

Civil disobedience

Collective behaviour          

Community

Crime

Criminology

Cultural lag

Culture

Custom

Ethnic group

Family

Group dynamics

Homelessness

Juvenile court

Juvenile delinquency

Middle class

Minority group

Orphanage

Population

Poverty

Power (social)

Prejudice

Public opinion

Public opinion poll

Racism

Research

Riot

Segregation

Social change

Social class

Social role

Socialization

Statistics

Town planning

Tribe

Unemployment

Vital statistics

Social Change

Social change refers to any significant change in the structure of society. Short-lived changes, such as changes in the employment rate, do not produce social change. Nor do fads, fashions, or temporary changes in ideas and behaviour. The election of a new government is not social change. But replacement of an elected gov­ernment with a dictatorship changes the structure of government and is thus a social change. Most sociolo­gists recognize four main types of social change.

One type of social change involves changes in the number and variety of positions and social roles. When we say that an industrial society is more complex than a peasant society, we mean that it has many new and spe­cialized jobs, such as computer programming, conduct­ing cancer research, and piloting a spacecraft.

A second kind of change occurs in the obligations or duties attached to positions. For example, parents are no longer responsible for educating their children. They give this job to teachers and schools.

These two types of change lead to a third type-new ways of organizing social activities. The establishment of kindergartens in many Western countries occurred partly because the children of working mothers needed care. Other educational changes took place in response to rising educational aspirations and occupational needs. For example, colleges were established for advanced—but not university-level—education.

A fourth kind of social change involves the redistribu­

tion of facilities and rewards, such as power, education, income, and respect. In 1950, for example, about half the people in the United States with substandard incomes were nonwhites. Today, about a third of the nation's poor are nonwhites.

Sometimes societies evolve gradually. At other times, they change abruptly, as in times of revolution. Change can result from planning, or it can be unintentional. Every society changes, but not all change at the same rate or in the same direction. Revolutionary change is often accompanied by violence.

For centuries, people have sought simple explana­tions for change, often emphasizing single factors. The German social philosopher Karl Marx claimed that the economy is the prime source of social change. Today, scholars believe that such explanations do not account for the complicated events of social change. Many soci­ologists think that societies are systems. Change in one part of a society, they believe, leads to change in other parts, with no one part having priority. For example, the car—a product of technological change—created changes in where people live and work, and in their lei­sure activities. See also Cultural lag; Culture (How culture changes); Social role; Sociology (Social change).

Social Class

Social class is a group of people in a society that have about the same social standing. Social classes exist be­cause people usually classify one another into more or less distinct groups based on such factors as wealth, power, prestige, ancestry, religion, and occupation. Often, people rank these groups in their minds, consid­ering some "better" than others. Social scientists call the groups social classes and describe the process of social ranking as social stratification.

All societies seem to have some system of social strat­ification. That is, there are no "classless" societies. In the Western democracies, the class system is usually infor­mal, and social scientists disagree on how to classify the groups that seem to exist. Some social scientists arbi­trarily divide people into three classes—upper, middle, and lower. Other social scientists add a fourth class—the working class—between the middle and lower groups, while others substitute the term working class for lower class.

In most Western democracies, people can move from one category to another and there are few clear-cut signs showing which group a person belongs to. But in some societies, people are born into a certain social class, and change to another class is difficult if not im­possible. A class with such rigid barriers is called a caste. A person belongs to the caste of his or her par­ents. Laws and traditions severely limit the social con­tacts they may have with members of other castes. India has a more firmly established caste system than any other country. See Caste; India (Religion).

Communism has long had the goal of achieving a "classless" society without distinctions based on rank or birth. But in Communist countries—just as in the coun­tries of the non-Communist world—some groups of people, such as government officials, have much more power, wealth, and prestige than others. See Commu­nism (Marxism).

How people are ranked. Various methods are used to compare and rank individuals and groups. A so­cial scientist may use such objective measures as how much money a person earns. Or members of a group may rank one another, or place themselves on the class ladder. Surveys show that the way people rank them­selves depends on the categories that are used. If they are told to place themselves in either the upper, middle, or lower class, most place themselves in the middle class. But when the working-class category is included, the majority rank themselves in that class. Almost all the people are unwilling to say that they belong to the lower class.

Occupation is one of the best indicators of class, be­cause people tend to agree on the relative prestige they attach to similar jobs. Those at or near the top rung of the prestige ladder usually have the highest incomes, the best education, and the most power. In general, people in positions of leadership and responsibility- such as heads of government and industry—rank at the top. People whose jobs require long training and high intelligence—such as doctors, scientists, and university- trained professional people—rank next. People with low- paying positions that require little training or formal education—such as unskilled labourers—rate at the bot­tom.

People in both capitalist and Communist countries, as well as those in both economically developed and de­veloping countries, rank these jobs almost exactly the same way.

Class differences. Social status affects a person's be­haviour, values, and style of life. Upper-class members, for example, are aware of their privileged position and try to preserve it by encouraging marriage within their own class. They usually back conservative political par­ties and candidates in elections, because they wish to maintain the existing system of inequality. Socially, the upper class is noted for its elegant and refined style of living.

Most members of the middle class enjoy a better- than-average education and standard of living. Middle- class values are usually the dominant values in a society. In many countries, the middle class stresses thrift, self- improvement, and economic success and job advance­ment Members of this group believe it is important to own property and to conform to the community's stand­ards on morality and respectability. Generally, they send their children to university, and they are prominent in civic and government affairs.

Members of the lower class usually have less formal education and training than those of the middle- and upper-classes, and have unskilled or semiskilled jobs. Because many lower-class members live in poverty or near-poverty, they are more concerned with immediate needs than with long-range goals.

Why social classes exist. Most sociologists who study stratification believe a society must have a system of rewards to encourage some people to undertake the key jobs. People who hold these positions usually need much education and training, and often work under great strain. For people to seek out and work efficiently in such socially crucial occupations, society must see that they are well rewarded. Therefore, these sociolo­gists argue, stratification and unequal reward are neces­sary for a division of labour with some people taking greater responsibility than others.

A group of sociologists influenced by the teachings of Karl Marx rejects this interpretation. This group ar­gues that differing rewards are due to variations in power positions. For example, the people who control the resources that people value or who control the po­lice or other instruments of force have the highest in­come and status. This group suggests that stratification exists in any social organization that involves a chain of command.

See also Middle class; Economic determinism. Social Darwinism is the belief that people in society compete for survival and that superior individuals, so­cial groups, and races become powerful and wealthy. Social Darwinism applies Charles Darwin's theories on evolution to the development of society.

Darwin, a British naturalist, published his theories in 1859 in the book The Origin of Species (see Evolution [Darwin's theory]). Fie believed all plants and animals had evolved (developed naturally) from a few common an­cestors. Fie proposed that evolution occurred through natural selection, a process by which the organisms best suited to their environment are the ones that are most likely to survive and produce organisms like them­selves.

Social Darwinism applies the idea of natural selection to society, attempting to explain differences in achieve­ment and wealth among people. According to the the­ory, individuals or groups must compete with one an­other to survive. The principles of natural selection favour the survival of the fittest members of society.

Such individuals or groups adapt successfully to the so­cial environment, while those that are unfit fail to do so.

Social Darwinists assert that those best able to sur­vive demonstrate their fitness by accumulating property, wealth, and social status. Poverty, according to the the­ory of social Darwinism, proves an individual's or group's unfitness.

Many social scientists have criticized social Darwin­ism because it fails to consider that some people inherit power and influence merely by being born into wealthy families. These individuals or groups, critics claim, owe their good fortune more to their higher social position than to any natural superiority.

Social Darwinism developed as an important social theory during the late 1800's. Herbert Spencer, a British philosopher, first proposed the theory. The theory had lost much of its influence by the early 1900's, but some social scientists continue to study it today. See also Spencer, Fierbert; Sociobiology.

Social Psychology

Social psychology is the study of the psychological basis of people's relationships with one another. Social psychologists investigate such processes as communi­cation, cooperation, competition, decision making, lead­ership, and changes in attitude.

Like other scientists, social psychologists begin their research by developing theories. They then collect evi­dence to support their theories. For example, the Ameri­can social psychologist Leon Festinger developed the theory that people become uneasy when they learn new information that conflicts with what they already believe. He suggested that people would do much to avoid this uneasiness, which he called cognitive dissonance. To demonstrate Festinger's theory, researchers collected data showing that people who believe they are failures often avoid success, even when they can easily achieve it. Success would conflict with their belief in themselves as failures.

Social psychologists often support their theories through experiments. For example, one study investi­gated how people's opinions of an essay were affected by the supposed sex of the author. People who believed the writer was a man had a higher opinion of the essay than those who thought the author was a woman. Social psychologists also use other sources of information, in­cluding public opinion surveys, recorded observations of behaviour, and statistics from government agencies.

Many social psychologists teach and conduct re­search at colleges and universities. Others work for gov­ernment agencies, businesses, or other organizations. They may help plan personnel programmes or measure the potential sale of new products.

The first textbooks on social psychology were pub­lished in the early 1900^rs. Modern social psychology owes much to the behavioural psychologists of the 1930's, who called for the scientific study of observable behaviour. Today, social psychology continues to stress the precise measurement of people's actions.

Another major influence on social psychology was the work of George Herbert Mead and Kurt Lewin.

Mead, an American psychologist and philosopher, ar­gued that people's ideas about themselves are devel­oped through social contact. Lewin, a German-born psy­chologist, investigated how individuals in groups are affected by other members. Both Mead and Lewin claimed that behaviour depends primarily on how people interpret the social world. The work of these early researchers continues to influence social psychologists, who study people's perception of themselves and oth­ers.

Related articles: Alienation, Psychology, Group dynamics, Social role, Morale, and Sociology (Social behaviour)

Social Role

Social role is a set of relationships between a person and members of his or her circle. People's behaviour in social roles makes possible the life of a society and its members. For example, an individual in the role of hos­pital patient follows a doctor's instructions and cooper­ates with the hospital staff. In return, the patient receives food, medicine, and other care from a number of peo­ple.

Social roles are learned from a culture, which defines how they should be performed. They are not instinctive. People learn many roles during childhood by observing their parents and other adults. Some roles, such as those of patient or student, are learned by almost all members of a society. Other roles, such as those of doc­tor or teacher, require specialized training.

Because social roles are learned, they differ among different cultures. For example, the major roles of women in some societies are wife and mother. But other societies offer women many roles from which to choose.

Every person occupies many social roles during his or her lifetime. A woman may be a daughter to her par­ents, a wife to her husband, a mother to her children, and a worker to her employer. Problems may result if the demands of one role interfere with those of another. This situation is called role conflict. For example, an em­ployee might need to work overtime to advance his or her career. But such work is likely to conflict with the person's role as a parent.

See also Behaviour; Personality; Sex (Sex roles); So­cial psychology.

Social Science

Social science. Scholars generally identify three cate­gories of knowledge: (1) the natural sciences and mathe­matics, (2) the humanities, and (3) the social sciences.

The natural sciences concern nature and the physical world. The humanities try to interpret the meaning of life on earth rather than to describe the physical world or society. The social sciences focus on our life with other people in groups. They include anthropology, economics, history, political science, sociology, social psychology, criminology, and the science of law. Some scholars also regard education, ethics, and philosophy as social sciences. Certain studies in other fields, such as biology, geography, medicine, art, and linguistics, may be said to fall within the broad category of the so­cial sciences.

Relationship to natural sciences. Scholars in the social sciences have developed certain ways of studying people and their institutions. Generally these scholars have borrowed from the natural sciences the methods they use to describe and explain the observed behav­iour of human society. Their observations of the regular­ity of human behaviour lead scholars in the social sci­ences to form hypotheses (propositions) and then to test the validity of these hypotheses.

The social sciences are still a comparatively new field

of learning. Flistory and geography have existed as sepa­rate disciplines for a long time. But attempts to systemat­ically study human behaviour are new, and most schol­ars doubt that the scientific method can be used with complete success to understand any aspect of society. They see a wide gulf between the exact nature of the natural sciences and the inexact nature of the social sci­ences. One of the most powerful tools used by those studying the natural sciences is the controlled experi­ment. Such a method is difficult to use in experiments involving human beings.

Relationship to humanities. The interdependence of the social sciences and the humanities is important. In a social science, the scholar must consider the underly­ing values of a society, which are stated by the scholars of the humanities. For instance, suppose a political sci­entist wishes to determine scientifically whether an authoritarian or a representative form of political organi­zation and control would best serve a particular commu­nity. The scholar must first learn the importance the community attaches to such values as the right of the in­dividual to differ with authority, or to have a voice in policy and laws. Then the principles that guide its politi­cal action can be assessed.

Related articles: Anthropology, Geography, Philosophy, Archaeology, Geopolitics, Political science, Criminology, Government, Psychology, Economics, History, Social psychology, Education, Law, Social studies, Ethics, Linguistics, and Sociology

Social Studies

Social studies is a programme of study in schools. Social studies deals with the individuals, groups, and in­stitutions that make up human society.

Social studies includes many of the social sciences, the fields of study concerned with people in society. For example, students in social studies classes study anthro­pology to learn about world cultures. They study sociol­ogy to investigate social relationships and groups. The students learn economics to discover how people make and distribute goods. They also study geography to find out where and how people live, history to gain knowl­edge of the past, and political science to understand dif­ferent forms of government. In some programmes, stu­dents study such subjects as philosophy, psychology, religion, and art.

Goals. A major goal of social studies programmes is to provide the student with knowledge of the world and its peoples. Social studies students investigate their own and other cultures to determine the similarities and dif­ferences.

Educators design social studies programmes to teach four chief types of skills: (1) study skills, (2) intellectual skills, (3) group work skills, and (4) social skills. Study skills help students gather information from books, maps, and other materials. Intellectual skills enable them to define and analyse problems. Group work skills help students operate effectively in committees and other groups. Social skills guide them in getting along with others.

Social studies programmes are also designed to help students develop certain attitudes and beliefs, such as educators, parents, and community leaders often differ on what values these programmes should stress.

Methods. Educators sometimes organize social studies content around key concepts. For example, a teacher may base a unit on the concept of justice, an im­portant idea in political science. Another unit might deal with the concept of region, as used by geographers.

Social studies teachers encourage students to ask questions and to seek answers for themselves. This method, sometimes called the discovery method or in­quiry method, teaches young people how to think, rather than what to think.

Related articles: Anthropology, History, Economics, Political science, Geography, Social science, Government, and Sociology

Social Welfare

Social welfare concerns public programmes that help people achieve a degree of economic security. So­cial security, also called social insurance, provides money to help replace income lost as a result of retire­ment, unemployment, disability, or death. Social secu­rity pays benefits to workers and their families largely on the basis of work histories. It includes unemploy­ment benefit or retraining services for people who have lost their jobs. Many of the very poor are not eligible for social security benefits because they do not have a work record.

Welfare is provided by governments to help very poor people on the basis of their needs, not on a work record. It includes allowances to families with children, and free services such as health care for those who can­not afford to pay for them.

Development of social security

The Industrial Revolution of the 1700's and 1800's led to the development of social security in Europe. Many people moved to cities to take jobs in factories. They often received low wages and worked under dangerous conditions. If they became disabled, they faced great hardship. Few could save for emergencies or for their old age. They were unable to support aged or needy rel­atives. Before the late 1800's, there were no compulsory government security programmes. Local communities offered some aid and there were a few religious relief organizations. But most of the poor could depend only on local charity or look forward to living in the misery of the poorhouse. Generally speaking, wealthier people felt that the poor were to blame for their misfortune.

In 1883, Germany passed the first sickness insurance law. In 1884, it passed the first workers' injury act. By 1889, Germany had established the first compulsory old- age and disability insurance programme. Most Euro­pean countries soon passed laws similar to those passed in Germany. The United Kingdom did so in 1908, Sweden in 1913, and South Africa in 1928. Japan passed its law in 1941, Malaysia in 1951, and Singapore in 1953.

The United States was slow in following the European countries. By the time of the Great Depression of the 1930's, U.S. political and business leaders came to real­ize that economic misfortune could result from events beyond workers' control. The U.S. passed its first com­prehensive social security legislation in 1935. Canada began its social security system in 1940.

All industrialized countries and many developing countries now have social security systems.

Unemployment insurance. In 1911, Great Britain and Ireland passed laws providing unemployment in­surance. Germany followed in 1927 and New Zealand in 1930. The U.S.A. made it part of its 1935 law. Japan passed legislation in 1947, and Israel in 1970. See Unem­ployment.

Who pays? Support for the programmes may come from three sources: employees, their employers, and governments. Employees pay a percentage of their earn­ings and employers also pay a percentage of their pay­rolls under most systems. Some governments also make a contribution. In some countries, such as Australia and New Zealand, the government pays for the programme from general taxes. There is no employee or employer contribution.

Some plans fall between social security (based on so­cial insurance) and welfare (designed to aid the poor). Governments, for example, may pay cash benefits with­out regard to work history, need, income, or assets.

Such programmes depend on general income taxes. Some developing countries established compulsory savings plans. Typically, workers have a portion of their pay withheld by the employer. The employer matches the amount and holds the funds. They are later repaid with interest to the worker.

Development of welfare

In early times, governments seldom took responsibil­ity for relieving poverty. Charity came largely from rela­tives and neighbours. Voluntary and religious groups also provided shelter, medical care, and money for the poor.

In England, the early welfare laws dealt harshly with the poor. The Statute of Labourers passed in 1349, for example, prohibited charity because it might encourage idleness. That comment can still be heard in some criti­cisms of modern welfare programmes. The Elizabethan Poor Law, passed by the British Parliament in 1601, made local parishes responsible for their own poor. Re­lief funds were collected in each parish.

Early welfare laws recognized two forms of assistance —outdoor relief and indoor relief. Outdoor relief was given to recipients in their own homes. For indoor re­lief, clients had to live in poorhouses, also called work­houses. Conditions in such places were often extremely miserable.

Eventually, most European countries provided for their needy through national programmes that benefit all citizens. In many countries, the government provides free medical and hospital care. Programmes that ad­dress costs of sickness or maternity care for the whole population were introduced in Germany in 1883, in Great Britain in 1911, in Japan in 1922, in New Zealand in 1938, and in Australia in 1944. India passed such legisla­tion in 1948.

In the 1920's, welfare programmes began providing allowances to families with children. New Zealand passed its first law in 1926 and Australia passed one in 1941. Most programmes were begun afterWorld War II—for example, the United Kingdom in 1945, Sweden and South Africa in 1947, Germany in 1954, Israel in 1959, and Japan in 1971. The U.S.A. is the only large in­ industrialized country without a family allowance pro­gramme as part of its welfare system.

In Canada, the national plan that serves the whole population is supported by both provincial and national governments.

Programmes in Great Britain, Norway, and Sweden are so complete for all citizens that those nations are said to be welfare states. For more information, see So­cial welfare sections of articles on those countries. For historical and other information on the very poor, see Poverty.

Problems of welfare

Some people consider it a disgrace to receive welfare and feel ashamed if poverty forces them to apply for it.

A few even refuse to accept it, even though they are ex­tremely poor. Sometimes officials administering welfare payments may not provide the encouragement that people need to take full advantage of government programmes designed to help them become self- supporting.

There are many problems in the administration of welfare. If recipients cannot earn much more from a job than they can get from benefits, for example, some may be discouraged from looking for work. Anyone who cannot significantly increase his or her income by work­ing is said to be in a poverty trap. If more welfare bene­fits are given to single-parent families than to two-parent families, marriages already under strain may eventually break up.

Despite problems, people who have taken advantage of government and private welfare aid have been able to improve their lives and become self-supporting. Adult literacy education, job training, good schools, and health education are among services that can help a per­son achieve notable personal successes.

Social work

Casework involves direct contact between the social worker and the individuals and families being helped.

Social work is a profession that includes a wide range of social services and programmes. Specially trained people called social workers provide counselling, sup­port, and guidance to people who need help. Such as­sistance enables people to understand themselves and their living conditions and to attain their full potential. Social workers also try to improve living conditions by participating in programmes to prevent such problems as crime, child abuse, drug addiction, mental illness, and poor housing.

Most social work is financed by government agencies or private organizations. The majority of social workers are employed in family service agencies, hospitals, clin­ics, drug abuse centres, nursing homes, schools, pris­ons, and factories. Some social workers have a private practice and provide counselling for a fee.

Methods of social work

Traditionally, social work consists of three basic approaches— case work, group work, and community or­ganization work. Casework involves direct contact be­tween a social worker and the individuals and families being helped. Group work involves programmes in which the social worker deals with several people at the same time. Community organization work focuses on neighbourhoods and their large groups of people.

Since the mid-1900's, social workers have increasingly combined the three basic approaches.

Fields of social work

There are five major fields of social work: (1) family and child welfare, 12) health, (3) mental health, (4) correc­tions, and (5) schools.

Family and child welfare includes services to fami­lies during an emergency, such as the absence of one or both parents from the home. Other critical situations re­quiring family service include unemployment of the principal wage earner and the illness of one or more members of a family.

Social workers in this field also help families adjust to long-term changes in home life. For example, a counsel­lor may provide guidance to children whose parents are separated or divorced.

Child welfare programmes provide such services as adoption, day care, foster child care, and care for handi­capped children. Child welfare workers also help physi­cally or emotionally abused children.

Health. Medical social workers help patients and their families in clinics, hospitals, and other health care facilities. These workers assist doctors by providing in­formation about the social and economic background of patients. For example, such problems as inadequate housing and lack of money for medicine may cause or aggravate illness. Social workers also offer counselling to patients who have been discharged to help them re­turn to everyday life.

Many medical social workers specialize in a particular type of area. These areas include maternal and child care, the care of dying patients, and counselling victims suffering from certain diseases, such as cancer or kid­ney failure.

Mental health. Social work in mental health includes aid to people suffering from mental and emotional stress. Social workers in this field also provide many of the same kinds of services offered by medical social workers. Some receive special training in psychother­apy, the treatment of mental or emotional disorders by psychological methods.

Corrections includes programmes concerned with the prevention of crime and the rehabilitation of crimi­nals. Social workers in the field of corrections also counsel people who are on probation or parole. Work­ers in this field give priority to preventive services, such as tutoring and recreation.

Schools. Social work is part of the programme in schools at all levels, from nursery school to university- level education. It includes services to students in spe­cial schools for the emotionally disturbed and the handi­capped. Social workers in schools provide vocational counselling and help with personal problems. They also assist students who have learning difficulties and help them to fulfil their maximum potential.

Other fields of social work offer assistance in a wide variety of situations. Many social workers help elderly people obtain such services as financial assistance and medical care, which enable them to live as independ­ently as possible. Social workers in clinics and commu­nity treatment centres provide counselling to alcoholics and drug abusers.

Some social workers aid people in public housing projects and help find dwellings for families made homeless by urban crises. Social workers employed by companies and trade unions provide a variety of work- related services, including health counselling and pre­retirement and retirement planning.

History

The desire to help other people is stressed by the major religions, especially Judaism and Christianity. The Bible tells of ways in which religious individuals assisted the needy. For example, the ancient Jews paid a tax for the benefit of the poor. This tax amounted to a tenth of a person's income. During the Middle Ages, from the late A.D. 400's to the 1500's, various religious groups de­voted themselves to healing the sick and feeding the hungry.

Great changes took place in society during the Indus­trial Revolution, a period of many new inventions and great industrial development that began in the 1700's. The growth of populations and industries, together with the movement of people from rural areas to cities, brought such problems as overcrowding, unemploy­ment, and poverty. Growing numbers of people began to depend on others for help. During the 1800's, many private agencies were established in order to aid these people.

Working with the needy became a distinct profession in the late 1800's. One agency, the Charity Organization Society, helped the needy in Great Britain, the United States, and Canada. Its counsellors, called "friendly visi­tors," went to people's homes and performed services, some of which were similar to those of present-day so­cial workers.

The New York School of Philanthropy was the first ed­ucational institution to train people for jobs with social agencies. This school, now the Columbia University School of Social Work, was founded by the Charity Or ganization Society in 1898 in New York City. However, the term social work did not come into widespread use until the early 1900's. By that time, the governments of many countries had started to provide social services. Governments financed these services by tax funds. See Social welfare.

Today, most professional social workers deal directly with the people they serve. Others work as administra­

tors, supervisors, planners, or teachers. Paraprofes- sional social workers do not require full professional training. They work as assistants to professional person­nel in community centres and agencies and mental health centres. Many paraprofessional social workers have a part-time position, and others volunteer their services. Related articles: Addams, Jane; Riis, Jacob A.; Red Cross; and Salvation Army

Other Related Topics

Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP) is a political party formed in Northern Ireland in August 1970. The SDLP is an Irish nationalist, left-wing party (see Left wing). The party's aims are to reunite Ireland by peaceful means, and to win equal rights for all people. The party also seeks just distribution of wealth among the people, a minimum wage, and equal pay for equal work. The party's headquarters are in Belfast.

The SDLP was formed by Gerard Fitt and a number of other opposition members of the Northern Ireland Par­liament at Stormont (see Stormont Parliament). In Au­gust 1971, the British government decided to intern (im­prison without trial) people suspected of terrorism in Northern Ireland. The SDLP called on its supporters, mainly Roman Catholics, to withhold payment of rent and rates to local authorities as a protest against intern­ment

In March 1972, the British government abolished the Stormont Parliament and started ruling Northern Ireland direct from London. When an election was held in July 1973, for a new Northern Ireland Assembly, the SDLP won 19 of its 78 seats. Talks with the British government commenced, seeking to form an Executive to rule North­ern Ireland and to prevent the fall of the Assembly.

When the Executive was set up on January 1,1974, its members included 5 from the SDLP. Fitt became the deputy chief minister. He was elected to the British Par­liament in the general election of February 1974. The Ex­ecutive fell in May 1974.

Fitt resigned from the SDLP in 1979 after it rejected new British government moves to negotiate a peaceful settlement in Northern Ireland. John Hume, a member of the British and European parliaments, succeeded Fitt as SDLP leader.

See also Fitt, Gerard; Hume, John.

Social Democratic Party (SDP) was a British politi­cal party that existed between 1981 and 1990. The SDP claimed to represent moderate political opinion midway between extreme left-wing and right-wing views. For ex­ample, it supported a British economy in which private and state-owned industries both have a share.

Party policies. The SDP officially advocated a num­ber of general principles. It supported reform of Brit­ain's electoral system to make it more representative of the people's political opinions. The party advocated greater power for local authorities and separate political assemblies for Scotland and Wales. It considered that employers and employees should have equal roles in the running of industry. It supported maintaining and improving state-run social services, and letting the peo­ple who use them have a greater share in their control. The SDP supported the promotion of equal rights for women and for ethnic and other minority groups. The SOP'S foreign and defence policies were based upon Britain's membership of both the European Community (the Common Market) and the North Atlantic Treaty Or­ganization.

Organization. The main policy-making body of the

SDP was the Council for Social Democracy. This council was elected by party members. At the local level, party organization was run by area parties covering from one to four constituencies.

Election of a party leader and president was carried out in accordance with the SDPs constitution, which was adopted after a special constitutional conference held in February 1982.

History. The SDP grew out of internal conflicts be­tween left-wing and right-wing members in Britain's La­bour Party. As a result of the dispute, four moderate La­bour Party members—Roy Jenkins, David Owen, William Rodgers, and Shirley Williams—formed a new political group called the Council for Social Democracy in Janu­ary 1981. These four moderates later left the Labour Party and launched the Social Democratic Party in March 1981.

A number of sitting members of Parliament resigned from their parties and joined the SDP. In June 1981, the SDP formed an electoral alliance with the Liberal Party.

In 1982, Roy Jenkins became the SDPs first leader. In a

general election in June 1983, the SDP won 6 seats out of a total of 23 seats won by the alliance. Soon after­wards, David Owen became the SDP leader. In a general election in June 1987, the SDP won only 6 seats. A mem­bers' ballot soon afterwards voted to discuss merger with the Liberal Party. Owen opposed the merger and resigned, vowing to work to keep the SOP'S independ­ence. Robert Maclennan became the party's leader, and led the party into union with the Liberal Party. In 1988, the two parties formed the Social and Liberal Demo­cratic Party (later renamed the Liberal Democrats). David Owen tried to maintain an independent SDP, but the party officially closed down in 1990. See also Labour Party; Liberal Democrats; Owen, David. Social inserts. See Animal (Animals that live to­gether); Ant (Life in an ant colony); Bee (The honey bee colony; Kinds of bees); Termite; Wasp.

Society Islands is a group of islands in the Pacific Ocean. The islands lie slightly northeast of the Cook Is­lands, about 6,760 kilometres southwest of San Fran­cisco, U.S.A. Samuel Wallis claimed the islands for Great Britain in 1767. But Louis Antoine de Bougainville claimed them for France in 1768. The group became a French protectorate in 1842, and a colony in 1880.

The Society Islands group consists of 14 islands. Ta­hiti and Raiatea are the largest islands. The Society Is­lands cover an area of 1,587 square kilometres, and have a population of about 140,000. For location, see Pacific islands (map).

Ancient volcanoes form many high peaks, making the land rough and mountainous. Some of the islands are low atolls, and are used as fishing centres. The capital of the island group is the busy seaport of Papeete, on Ta­hiti. The people are Polynesians. Many of them fish and dive for pearls. See also Tahiti.

Sociobiology is the study of the biological basis for the social behaviour of human beings and other animals. Sociobiologists try to determine the function of various types of behaviour in the life of an animal. They also seek to discover how aggression, communication, and other types of social behaviour originated and have changed through countless generations.

Social behaviour has traditionally been studied by ex­perts in such fields as ethology (the study of animal be­haviour), anthropology, psychology, and sociology. So­ciobiologists use information and ideas from these fields, but they examine social behaviour primarily in terms of modern theories of genetics and evolution. Many sociobiologists believe that the results of their studies will one day revolutionize sociology and the other social sciences.

Sociobiology is based on the theory that the central process of life is the struggle of genes to reproduce themselves. According to this theory, an organism in­herits tendencies to develop certain types of behaviour. These behaviour patterns increase the animal's chances of transmitting its genes to the next generation.

Sociobiologists believe an animal can pass on its genes not only by reproducing but also by helping re­lated animals, such as brothers and sisters, survive and reproduce. For example, a worker bee may sting an in­truder to protect the hive. The act of stinging kills the worker bee but it protects the queen bee, which has many of the same genes. The queen bee will pass on these genes to her offspring. Sociobiologists have dis­covered that the more closely two animals are related genetically, the more likely one is to sacrifice itself to protect the other. These scientists speculate that self- sacrificing behaviour in human beings may also have a genetic basis.

Some biologists argue that sociobiological explana­tions of social behaviour in animals cannot be applied to human social behaviour. These critics point out that human behaviour, unlike animal behaviour, is highly changeable and is affected by many cultural and envi­ronmental influences. Sociobiologists recognize the im­portance of such influences. But they insist that human behaviour cannot be understood properly without con­sidering genetic factors as well. See also Lorenz, Konrad Zacharias; Social Darwin­ism.