Russia is the largest country in the world. It has an area of 17,075,400 square
kilometres, almost twice that of Canada, the second largest country. A train
trip be-
Land regions - Many scientists divide Russia into four zones according to soil
conditions and plant life, which are based
A belt of rich farmland - stretches across Russia from east to west.
In the photograph on the left, farmworkers harvest wheat on the European
Plain. This mainly flat landform makes up most of the European part of Russia.
Fields of wheat spread over vast areas of Russian farmland. Russia is one of the world's
major producers of wheat and other grains.
Russian ballet troupes perform throughout the world. They are famous for their skill and
beauty.
Snow covers more than half of Russia for six months of the year. This village
is near the city of Irkutsk in Siberia.
The Congress of
People s Deputies is the highest legislative authority in Russia. It has more than
1,000 members, who are elected by the Russian people.
A Moscow family gathers for dinner at home. Most people in
Russia eat their main meal at midday.
High-rise apartment buildings,
house millions of people in Russia's cities. Nevertheless, a housing
shortage persists in urban areas.
Shoppers wait to buy food. Such waiting is common in
Russia's cities, which lack sufficient amounts of food and other consumer
goods.
At outdoor
markets, farmers sell produce that is fresher than that found in state
shops, but more expensive. This market is in Krasnodar, a city in southwestern Russia
Soccer is the most popular sport in Russia, among both participants and
spectators. Russia has many sports camps and clubs, recreational centres, and
other athletic facilities for children and adults.
St. Basil's Cathedral in Moscow has colourful onion-shaped domes that have made it one of the
most widely recognized buildings in Russia. The Byzantine-style cathedral was
built from 1555 to 1560 by Ivan the Terrible, Russia's first czar.
Religious paintings called icons dominated Russian art from the late 90tJs to the late 1600's. Icons
were created for Russian Orthodox worship services and were considered sacred.
The East Siberian Uplands are mainly a wilderness of mountains and
plateaus. The region has valuable mineral resources, but its harsh climate
makes it difficult to use them. Small towns, such as the one shown above, are
sparsely scattered throughout the East Siberian Uplands.
A belt of rich farmland stretches across Russia from east to west.
In the photograph on the left, farmworkers harvest wheat on the European
Plain. This mainly flat landform makes up most of the European part of Russia.
Thick forest blankets the northern part of Russia from Europe to the Pacific Ocean.
It covers much of Siberia. Few people live in this vast area.
Lake Baikal, the deepest lake in the world, lies in Siberia. It has a depth of 1,620
metres. A small community is nestled between Lake Baikal and the surrounding
mountains.
Red Square in Moscow, Russia's capital and largest city, is the site of such famous
landmarks as St. Basil s Cathedral, V. I. Lenin's tomb, and the Kremlin. The large
plaza took its name in Russian from an old word meaning both beautiful and red
Collective farms called kolkhozy are controlled by the Russian government but managed in part by
farmers. This photograph shows a potato harvest at one such farm.
Long pipelines, such as the one shown above, transport natural
gas from fields in Siberia to European Russia. The gas is burned to provide
energy for industry and heat for homes. It is also a natural resource for the
production of certain chemicals.
A fishing crew brings in sturgeon from the mouth of the Volga River. Sturgeon eggs are
used to make caviar, a salty delicacy. Russia is famous for its flavourful caviar.
Important dates in Russia
A.D. 800's East Slavs established the state of Kievan Rus. 1237-1240 The
Mongols conquered Russia, c. 1318 The Mongols appointed Prince Yuri of Moscow
as the Russian grand prince.
1480 Ivan 111 broke Mongol control
over Russia.
1547 Ivan IV became the first Russian
czar.
1604-1613 Russia was torn by civil war,
invasion, and political confusion during the Time of Troubles.
1613 Michael Romanov became czar. He
started the Romanov line of czars, which ruled until 1917.
1703 Peter I founded St. Petersburg and
began building his capital there.
1812 Napoleon invaded Russia. He was
forced to retreat.
1861 Alexander II freed the serfs.
1905 japan defeated Russia in the
Russo-Japanese War. A revolution forced Nicholas II to establish a parliament.
1914-1917 Russia fought Germany and Austria-Hungary in World War I.
1917 The February Revolution overthrew
Nicholas II. The Bolsheviks (later called Communists) seized power in the
October Revolution. V. I. Lenin became head of government. Russia withdrew from
World War I. 1918-1920 The Communists defeated their anti-Communist opponents
in a civil war.
1922 The U.S.S.R. was established.
1991 Communist rule ended, and the
republics declared their independence. The Soviet Union was dissolved on
December 25.
1993 President Boris Yeltsin dissolved
parliament after parliament blocked his reform policies.
V. I. Lenin, with raised arm, led the Bolshevik take-over of the Russian government in the October
Revolution of 1917. He became the first leader of the Soviet Union.
Railways transport freight and passengers between Russia's major cities, many of
which are separated by vast distances. The phgtograph on the left shows a train
on the Trans-Siberian Railway, which runs between Vladivostok in the southeast
and Moscow in the west.
The Battle of Kulikovo in 1 380 was
the first Russian victory over the Mongol forces. It took place near the Don
River.
Ivan the Terrible became Russia's first czar in 1547. He expanded Russia's territory
and made Moscow his capital. This painting shows Ivan after he killed his son
in a fit of rage.
Peter the Great ruled Russia from 1682 until his death in 1725. Peter was a powerful
ruler whose many conquests expanded Russia's empire. He also reorganized the
government.
Catherine the Great became empress of Russia in 1762. She expanded the country's territory
and encouraged the development of the arts. But she preserved and extended
serfdom.
Expansionary of Russia This map shows the increase in territory that took place in Russia
between 1462 and 1914. Russia gained these lands through wars, conquests, and
annexations. The boundary of present-day Russia appears as a solid red line on
the map.
Leonid Brezhnev pursued a
policy of friendly relations with the West called detente. In the
1970's, Brezhnev and U.S. President
Richard Nixon signed an agreement limiting production of nuclear weapons as a
result of a series of meetings called the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks
(SALT).
Joseph Stalin one of the cruellest rulers in world history, was dictator of the
U.S.S.R. from 1929 to 1953.
Mikhail Gorbachev headed the Soviet Union from 1985 until it ceased to exist in 1991. This
photograph shows Gorbachev, greeting a crowd in Moscow.
Boris Yeltsin, the president of the former Russian republic, continued to serve as
president of Russia following the collapse of the Soviet Union at the end of
1991.
Russia is the world's largest country
in area. It is almost twice as big as Canada, the second largest country. From
1922 until 1991, Russia was the biggest republic in the Soviet Union, the most
powerful Communist country in the world. In the 1980's, many of the union
republics began making strong demands for greater control of their own affairs
or for independence. Independence moves by the republics gained strength after
a failed coup in 1991. In that year, the Soviet Union broke apart, and Russia
began to set up a new political, legal, and economic system.
Russia extends from the Arctic Ocean south
to the Black Sea and from the Baltic Sea east to the Pacific Ocean. It covers
much of the continents of Europe and Asia. Moscow, the capital, is one of the
world's largest cities in population. St. Petersburg, on the coast of the
Baltic Sea, is Russia's chief seaport.
Most of Russia's people are ethnic Russians— that is, descendants of an
early Slavic people called the Russians. More than 100 minority nationalities
also live in Russia. Approximately three-quarters of the people
make their homes in urban areas. Russian
cities have better schools and health-care facilities than the rural areas do.
However, the cities suffer from overcrowding and from frequent shortages of
many consumer goods, including food and clothing.
Russia has abundant natural resources,
including vast deposits of petroleum, natural gas, coal, and iron ore. However,
many of these reserves lie far from settled areas. Russia's harsh, cold climate
makes it difficult to take advantage of many of the country's valuable resources.
Russia traces its history back to a state
that emerged in Europe among the East Slavs during the 800's. Over time, large
amounts of territory and many different peoples came under Russian rule. For
hundreds of years, czars (emperors) and empresses ruled Russia. They had almost complete control
over most aspects of Russian life. Under these rulers, the country's economic
development lagged behind the rapid industrial progress that began in Western
Europe in the 1700's. Most of the people were poor, uneducated peasants.
Russia made many great contributions to
the arts during the 1800's. Such authors as Anton Chekhov, Fyodor Dostoevsky,
and Leo Tolstoy wrote masterpieces of literature. Russian composers, including
Modest Mussorgsky, Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, and Peter llich Tchaikovsky,
created music of lasting greatness. Russians also made valuable artistic
contributions in the fields of architecture, ballet, and painting.
Opposition to the czars' absolute power
increased during the late 1800rs and the early 190ffs. Revolutionaries
overthrew the Russian government in 1917. The next year, Russia became the
Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (R.S.F.S.R.). In 1922, the
R.S.F.S.R. and three other republics established a new nation called the Union
of Soviet Socialist Republics (U.S.S.R.), also known as the Soviet Union. The
R.S.F.S.R. became the largest and most influential republic of the Soviet
Union, which grew to 15 republics by 1956. In 1991, Communist
rule in the Soviet Union collapsed, and
the country broke apart. Russia and 10 other republics formed a new, loose
federation called the Commonweafth of Independent States.
After the breakup of the Soviet Union,
Russia entered a transitional period. The Communist leaders of the Soviet
Union had controlled all aspects of the country's economy and government.
Russia's new national government worked to transform the country from a state-
controlled, managed economy to one based on private enterprise and a free
market for goods and services. The government also began to establish new
political and legal systems in Russia.
This article deals with Russia from its
early history to the present. For more detailed information about the history
of Russia between 1922 and 1991—when it was part of the Soviet Union—see Union
of Soviet Socialist Republics.
National government. In 1992, Russia established a transitional (temporary) government headed
by Boris Yeltsin had been elected president of the R.S.F.S.R. in 1991. After
the breakup of the Soviet Union, Yeltsin continued to serve as president of
Russia.
The president of Russia is the head of
state. A prime —minister acts as the head of government. The government has a
cabinet called the Council of Ministers.
A parliament makes Russia's laws. It
consists of the Congress of People's Deputies and the Supreme Soviet. Soviet is a Russian word meaning council. The Congress of People's
Deputies has more than 1,000 members. This body is Russia's highest legislative
authority. The Supreme Soviet has two houses—the Council of the Federation
and the Council of Nationalities. The members of the Supreme Soviet are elected
from among the members of the Congress of People's Deputies.
The transitional Russian government
suffered from instability. Many former Communists and Soviet Union leaders
opposed the economic and governmental reforms proposed by President Yeltsin.
These opponents included many members of parliament. In September 1993, Yeltsin
dissolved the parliament. See The
new nation section at the end of this
article.
Local government. Russia contains 49 administrative units called oblasts (regions) and 6 large,
sparsely settled krais (territories). Russia also has about 30 other territories, each of
which has a dominant nationality group. These territories are known as
autonomous republics and autonomous areas. There is also one autonomous region.
Autonomous means self-governing, but these units actually had little control over their own affairs in
the Soviet Union. The future of the autonomous units is unclear, because some
of their populations are pressing for
increased self-rule.
All of these divisions may contain smaller
units called raions (districts). Councils called soviets manage local affairs in both
urban and rural areas. In October 1993, Yeltsin ordered these soviets to be
replaced by newly elected, smaller councils.
Politics. The Communist Party was the only legal political party in the U.S.S.R.
until March 1990. At that time, the Soviet Constitution—which gave the
Communist Party its broad powers—was amended. A loose coalition of political
parties with a democratic platform, known as the Democratic Russia Movement,
began to play a key role in the reform movement. The Democratic Russia Movement
secured Yeltsin's victory in free presidential elections in June 1991. The
collapse of the Communist Party and the Soviet Union caused the Democratic Russia
Movement to break apart. Croups that had opposed the Soviet Communist Party
developed into separate political parties.
The Russian Christian Democratic Party
backs a parliamentary democracy with a monarchy, based on law and principles
of Christian morality. The Social Democratic Party calls for a political,
social, and economic democracy in which each ethnic group can maintain its
identity. It seeks to achieve its goals through social and legal revolution.
The Democratic Party of Russia, which has attracted many intellectuals, wants
to base the new Russian government on individual freedom and on private
ownership of property. The Republican Party of the Russian Federation seeks
political and economic freedom through rapid change to private ownership and a
less centralized government. The People's Party of Free Russia formed in 1991
as a democratic party of Communists within the Communist Party of the Soviet
Union. It later declared itself the sole successor to the Communist Party. A
number of extremist groups, such as the Liberal Democratic Party, have also emerged.
New political parties continue to form in
Russia to promote the interests of specific groups. However, Yeltsin suspended
a number of parties following his confrontation
with the parliament. AH Russian citiiens who
are 21 years of age or older may vote in
elections.
Courts. The former Soviet government had a political police system called the
Committee for State Security, known as the KGB. The KGB could interfere with
and influence the legal system, and major violations of human rights took
place. The KGB no longer exists in Russia. Today, Russia has two security
agencies. The Russian Security Services handles internal security, and the
Foreign Intelligence Service collects information from other countries. In
addition, new laws are being passed to protect the rights of all Russian
citizens. The procurator-general, the chief legal officer of Russia, is nominated by the president and
approved by the Congress of People's Deputies.
Russia's highest court is called the
Constitutional Court. This court, which was established in 1992, rules on the
constitutionality of the country's laws. However, President Yeltsin suspended
the Constitutional Court in 1993 shortly after he dissolved parliament. See The new nation section
at the end of this article.
The people in Russia are distributed
unevenly throughout the country. Most of the population live in the western
(European) part of Russia. The more rugged and remote areas to the east are
sparsely inhabited. For the total population, see the Russia in brief table
with this article.
Population. About 83 per cent of Russia's people are of Russian ancestry. These
ethnic Russians make up the largest group of Slavic peoples. Members of more
than 100 other nationality groups also live in Russia. The largest groups include
Tatars (or Tartars), Ukrainians, Chuvash, Bashkirs, Belarusians, Mordvins,
Chechen, Germans, Udmurts, Mari, Kazakhs, Avars, Armenians, and Jews, who are
considered a nationality group in Russia. Many of them live in Russia's
autonomous territories. Remote parts of the Far North are sparsely inhabited by
small Siberian groups, including Aleuts, Chukchi, Eskimos, and Koryaks. These
northern peoples differ from one another in ancestry and language, but they
share a common way of life shaped by the harsh, cold climate.
The government of the Soviet Union had
granted Russians special privileges. It repressed the distinctive cultures of
other nationalities and did not always uphold their rights. This policy
sharpened resentment among some peoples. Today, pride in their culture and the
desire for greater independence are growing among the
Russia's local courts are called peoples courts. The
judges of the local courts are elected by the people to five-year terms.
Armed forces. The Soviet Union had the largest armed forces in the world. About 4
million people served in its army, navy, and air force. Required military
service for young men began at age 18 and lasted at least two years.
When the Soviet Union collapsed, command
of the Soviet armed forces passed to the Commonwealth of Independent States.
But several former republics—including Russia—also announced intentions to
create their own armed forces. In 1992, Russia began to form its own armed
forces and absorbed some of the former Soviet forces.
members of many nationalities, including
Russians.
Ancestry. Ethnic Russians are descended from Slavs who lived in eastern Europe
several thousand years ago. Over time, migration split the Slavs into three
subgroups—the East Slavs, the West Slavs, and the South Slavs. The Russians
trace their heritage to the first East Slav state, Kievan Rus. This state
emerged in the 800's.
Kievan Rus suffered repeated invasions by
Asian tribes, including the Pechenegs, Polovtsians, and Mongols. The Mongol
invasions forced some people to migrate to safer, forested regions near
present-day Moscow. Moscow became an important Russian state in the 1300s.
This area has remained at the heart of Russia ever since. But people of many
ethnic groups have lived in Russia, especially since the 1500's, when extensive
expansion and colonization began.
Language. Russian is the official language of Russia. Spoken Russian sounds fairly
uniform from one end of the country to the other. Nevertheless, the language
has three major regional accents—northern, southern, and central. The small
differences rarely interfere with understanding. Russian is written in the
Cyrillic alphabet (see Alphabet [The Cyrillic alphabet!). Many minority
nationality groups in Russia have their own language and speak Russian as a
second language.
Way of life
The government of the Soviet Union
controlled many aspects of life in the country. It exerted great influence over
religion, education, and the arts. The independence of Russia following the
breakup of the Soviet Union brought greater freedom and triggered many other
changes in the lives of the people.
City life. About three-quarters of Russia's people live in urban areas.
Approximately 35 cities in Russia have Populations over 500,000. Two of Russia's
cities—Moscow and St. Petersburg—each have more than 4 million Inhabitants.
Russian cities are crowded. Beginning in the 1930’s, large numbers of people migrated from the countryside to urban areas. During World War II
(1939-1945), bombs destroyed many houses and other buildings. These circumstances
combined to create a housing shortage in Russian cities that continues to this
day. Millions of city dwellers live in small apartments in high-rise buildings.
The scarcity of housing forces some families to share kitchen and toilet
facilities. Single-family houses are common in small towns and on the outskirts
of large cities. But some of these houses lack indoor plumbing and other
modern conveniences.
Shortages of food, services, and
manufactured goods have been common features of city life in Russia. The
shortages were widespread in 1992, when the government lifted price controls.
When goods are available, they are often too expensive for most people to
afford. Russian cities also face urban problems such as increased crime and
environmental pollution.
Rural life. About a quarter of the Russian population live in rural areas.
Single-family housing is common in these areas, but the Soviet government built
many city- style apartment buildings. In the most remote areas of Russia, some
homes lack gas, plumbing, running water, and electricity. In addition, the
quality of education, health care, and cultural life is lower than in the
cities. Rural shops are poorly stocked, offering even less selec tion than city
shops. But food is more plentiful in rural areas than in the cities.
During the existence of the Soviet Union,
most rural people worked on huge farms run by the government. After the Soviet
Union collapsed, Russia began to break up these farms. New laws allow people to
withdraw from the government farms and set up private farms.
Clothing. Most people in the Soviet Union wore plain, simple clothes. Shops
offered little variety in clothing styles, and most people had only a few
different outfits. In the 1970's, consumers began to demand greater variety in
apparel. People preferred to buy imported Western clothing whenever it was
available. As a result, clothing manufacturers began to pay more attention to
style and quality. But scarcity, high cost, and Russia's cold climate continue
to affect Russian clothing styles. When possible, rural dwellers buy their
clothes in cities, where they find a wider selection.
Traditional Russian clothing consists of
colourfully embroidered shirts and blouses, embroidered headwear, and shoes
woven from bast, a tough fibre from the bark of certain trees. Rural dwellers wore these
costumes on special occasions, such as weddings and holidays. But, the
traditional costume is rarely worn today.
Food and drink. The Russian diet is hearty. Russians eat bread at virtually every meal.
Beef, chicken, pork, and fish are popular main dishes. The most commonly eaten
vegetables include beets, cabbage, carrots, cucumbers, onions, potatoes,
radishes, and tomatoes. Russians are fond of soups and dairy products, and
they
consume large quantities of sugar. Frying
remains a widespread method of preparing food.
Many Russian dishes are popular around the
world. They include blinis (thin pancakes served with smoked salmon or other fillings and sour
cream) and beefStro- ganoff(beei strips cooked with onions and mushrooms in a sour cream sauce). Other
favourite dishes include borscht (beet soup) and piroshkHbaked or fried dumplings filled with meat and cabbage).
Typical breakfast foods include eggs,
porridge, sausages, cheese, bread, butter, and jam. Most of the people eat
their main meal at midday. It consists of a salad or appetizer; soup; meat or
fish with potatoes.or kasha (cooked buckwheat); and dessert, such as stewed fruit or pastries. In
the evening, most Russians eat a light supper.
Russians drink large quantities of tea.
Many people enjoy coffee, but it is expensive and often unavailable. Kvass, a beerlike beverage made from
fermented black bread, is especially popular in summer. Russians also enjoy soft
drinks and mineral water.
Vodka is Russia's traditional alcoholic
beverage. Russians also drink wine, champagne, cognac, beer, and other
alcoholic beverages. Alcohol abuse has been and remains a major social problem
in Russia.
Health care in the Soviet Union was free. The Russian government remains committed
to meeting the basic health-care needs of its people. An insurance programme
to finance health care was introduced in 1993.
A private health-care sector is emerging.
The country has large numbers of doctors, nurses, hospitals, and other
facilities. However, shortages of medicines and equipment, low wages, and
bureaucracy continue to create problems. Bribery of health-care workers is common.
Conditions in the country's rural areas are worse than in the cities.
Recreation. Russians enjoy watching television, reading, playing chess, going to the
cinema, watching plays, visiting museums, walking, and taking part in sports.
The government actively promotes athletic activities, especially team sports.
Soccer is the most popular participant and spectator sport in Russia. Other
popular
sports include gymnastics, basketball, and
such winter sports as ice hockey, ice skating, and skiing. Tennis is growing in
popularity.
Russia has many athletic clubs, stadiums,
recreational centres, and other sporting facilities. Schools provide physical
education at all levels. There are also special sports camps and clubs for
children and adults.
The people of Russia are avid nature
lovers, and they enjoy spending time in the countryside. Many wealthy Russians
have country cottages called dachas. There, they garden, hike, cycle, swim, fish, gather mushrooms, and take
part in other outdoor activities.
Most people in Russia take holidays in the
summer. Popular destinations include resort areas along the Black Sea, the
Baltic Sea, and the Volga River, and in Siberia. However, price increases and
ethnic unrest have made holidays away from home less appealing.
Religion. The Soviet Union was hostile to religion.
But religion played an important role in
the lives of many of the country's people. In the late 1980's, religious
toleration began to increase dramatically. Churches recovered property seized
by the Soviet government Thousands of new parishes opened. Church attendance
shot up. Sunday schools opened across the country, and churches took part in
charity work. Publication of religious literature resumed, and new seminaries
opened. The celebration of Russian Orthodox Christmas on January 7 was made a
national holiday.
The Russian Orthodox Church is the largest
religious denomination in Russia. Other important religious groups in the
country include Muslims; Baptists, Pente- costalists, and other Protestant
denominations; Roman Catholics; and Jews.
Education. The Soviet government controlled education and considered it a major
vehicle of social advancement. As a result, almost all Russians can read and
write. Today, public education in Russia remains free for all citizens. New
private schools are also opening. The Soviet government had banned such
schools.
Russian educators are changing the school
curriculum to better prepare students for the new economy. They are working to
remove the influence of Communist Party ideology. Educators are also trying to
better satisfy the interests of Russia's nationality groups.
All children attend school for 11 years,
from age 6 to 17. Elementary education includes nine primary and intermediate
grades. When pupils finish ninth grade, they may choose to complete their
schooling by enrolling in a secondary school or vocational school. The
secondary schools emphasize science and mathematics. They also teach language,
literature, history, social sciences, and physical education. English is the
most widely taught foreign language. The vocational schools prepare young
people for careers as technicians or in various branches of industry and
agriculture.
Starting with the intermediate grades,
pupils must pass annual exams to advance to the next grade. Students who pass
a national examination upon the completion of secondary school receive a
certificate, and those who score well also receive a gold or silver medal.
Schools use a number grading scale of 1 to 5, with 5 being the highest.
Many gifted children attend special
schools. These schools stress individual subjects such as mathematics or
physics, languages, or the arts. Russia also has schools for children with
physical or learning disabilities.
Students must pass an entrance exam to be
admitted to a university or institute of higher education. Russia has 500
institutions of higher education equivalent to colleges and universities, with
about 3 million students. Moscow State University, the largest university in
Russia, has 28,000 students.
Museums and libraries. The people of Russia spend more time in museums than do the people of
most industrial countries. Russia has more than 660 museums. The State
Historical Museum in Moscow is the countrys chief historical museum. Several
museums dealing with the history of the Russian Revolution. These museums
include the Central Museum of the Revolution, which is located in Moscow. The
Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg has one of the world's largest art collections.
Russia has about 62,000 libraries. Most
towns and large villages have a public library. There are also libraries
specializing in particular subjects and libraries run by factories, schools,
trade unions, and professional and
civic organizations. The Russian State
Library in Moscow is the largest library in Russia. Other major libraries in Moscow
include the All-Russian State Library of Foreign Literature, INION (Institute
of Scholarly Information for the Social Sciences of the Academy of Sciences),
the State Historical Library, and the Gorki Library at Moscow State University.
St. Petersburg is home to the Saltykov- Shchedrin State Library and the Library
of the Russian Academy of Sciences.
Arts
The arts in Russia date back to the
earliest days of the country. But
Russian artists did not produce internationally recognized works in many fields
until the early 180ffs. Throughout much of the 1800's and the early 1900's,
Russia became an international leader in classical music, ballet, drama, and
literature. Several Russian painters and sculptors also gained worldwide fame.
This section discusses Russian
architecture, music, ballet, painting, and sculpture. For information on Russian
drama and literature, see Russian literature with its list of Related articles.
Architecture in Russia has been shaped by religious and Western influences combined with
local traditions. In 988, Grand Prince Vladimir I, ruler of the state of Kievan Rus, was converted to the Byzantine
(Eastern Orthodox Christian) faith. For hundreds of years, Russian architecture
reflected the influence of the Byzantine style. The most important structures
were churches, which had distinctive onion-shaped domes. The best known
Byzantine church is St. Basil's Cathedral in Moscow, built by the first czar,
Ivan IV (also called Ivan the Terrible), from 1555 to 1560. See
Byzantine art.
In 1682, Peter I, also known as Peter the
Great, became czar. Peter introduced Western European artistic styles into
Russia. He founded the city of St. Petersburg
in 1703 and brought Western European
architects and artists to help design it. Many of the buildings dating from his
reign and through the mid-1700s were designed in the Western European baroque
style by Italian and French architects. A famous example is the Great Palace at
Peterhof (now Petrodvorets).
Among the most widely recognized
architectural works in Russia are the buildings within the enclosed fortress in
Moscow called the Kremlin. The Kremlin includes churches, palaces, and other
buildings erected from the late 1400s to the mid-1900"s. Some Kremlin
buildings house Russia's government, and others serve as museums. See Kremlin.
Music. Until the mid-1700s, Russian music consisted almost entirely of vocal
music sung in church worship services and of folk music, which was also mainly
vocal. Nonreligious music began to flower during the reign of Elizabeth, the
empress of Russia from 1741 to 1762. She established the Academy of Arts in
1757, which taught music. Italian opera became popular during her reign. The
popularity of music in Russia expanded further during the reign of Catherine
II, known as Catherine the Great, who ruled from 1762 to 1796, The earliest
written collection of Russian folk songs appeared in four volumes published
between 1776 and 1795.
Mikhail Glinka is credited with founding a
distinctively Russian school of classical music in the early and middle
1800's. He blended folk songs and religious music into his works and also
introduced subjects from Russian history. Glinka's most influential work is
probably his second opera, Ruslan
and Lyudmila (1842), based on a fairy tale
written by the Russian poet Alexander Pushkin.
By the late 1800's, Russian music
flourished. Such composers as Modest Mussorgsky, Nikolai Rimsky- Korsakov,
Peter Ilich Tchaikovsky, and Alexander Borodin wrote operas and instrumental
music. Much of their work was based on Russian history and folklore. In the
early 1900's, Sergei Rachmaninoff and Igor Stravinsky gained international fame
for their musical compositions. Stravinsky wrote several influential ballet
scores, including The
Firebird 0), Petrouchka (1911),
and The Rite of Spring (1913). See the list of Russian composers in the Related articles section
of Classical music.
Ballet. Russian ballet became internationally famous starting in the mid-1800's.
The leading ballet companies, which continue to perform today, are the Kirov
Ballet (formerly the Russian Imperial Ballet) of St. Petersburg and the Bolshoi
Theatre Ballet of Moscow. See Ballet (Russian ballet); Bolshoi Theatre Ballet.
Painting and sculpture. Until the early 1900s, the most important Russian paintings were created
for religious purposes. Russian artists decorated the interiors of churches
with wallpaintings and mosaics. Stylized paintings called icons were produced for many centuries.
An icon is A religious painting considered sacred in Eastern Orthodox Christianity.
Icons were produced according to strict rules established by the church, and
their style changed little over the years. See Icon.
By the mid-1800’s, Moscow and St.
Petersburg had busy art schools. Russian artists also began to create paintings
and sculptures on more varied subjects.
A burst of creativity in Russian art
exploded during the years before the start of World War I in 1914. Russian
artists were strongly influenced by the modern art movements emerging in
Western Europe. The painters Marc Chagall, Alexei von Jawlensky, and Wassily
Kandinsky eventually settled in Western Europe.
Artists who remained in Russia developed
two important modern art movements, suprematism and constructivism. Both
movements produced paintings that were abstract— that is, they had no
recognizable subject matter. The leading suprematist was Kasimir Malevich. The
major constructivists included Naum Gabo, Antoine Pevsner, and Vladimir Tatlin.
See Chagall, Marc; Gabo, Naum; Kandinsky, Wassily; Pevsner, Antoine.
Land and Climate
Russia is the largest country in the
world. It has an area of 17,075,400 square kilometres, almost twice that of
Canada, the second largest country. A train trip between Moscow in the west and
Vladivostok in the east takes seven days and passes through eight time zones.
Land regions
Many scientists divide Russia into four
zones according to soil conditions and plant life, which are based mainly on
climate. The zones form broad belts across Russia, and no sharp transitions separate
them. From north to south, the zones are (1) the tundra, (2) the forest zone,
(3) the steppes, and (4) the semidesert and mountainous zone.
The tundra lies in the northernmost part
of Russia. It is largely a treeless plain. The tundra has short summers and
long, severe winters. About half the region has permanently frozen soil called
permafrost. Few people live in this bleak area. Plant life consists chiefly of low
shrubs, dwarf trees, and moss. Animals of the tundra include reindeer, arctic
foxes, ermines, hares, and lemmings. Waterfowl live near the Arctic Sea in
summer.
The forest belt lies south of the tundra.
The northern part of this belt is called the taiga. It consists of coniferous
(cone-bearing) trees, such as cedar, fir, pine, and spruce. This area has poor,
ashy soil, known as podzol
that makes it largely unfit for
agriculture. Farther south, the coniferous forests give way to mixed forests of
conifers, aspen, birch, elm, maple, oak, and other species. The soils in this
zone support agriculture in some areas, and the area has a mild, moist climate.
Brown bears, deer, elk, lynx, reindeer, and smaller animals such as beavers,
rabbits, and squirrels roam the forests.
Grassy plains called steppes stretch across Russia south of
the forests. The northern part of the steppe zone consists of wooded plains and
meadows. The massive southern part is largely a treeless prairie. The best
soils in Russia—brown soil and black, rich soil called chernozem— are found
there. Most of the steppe zone is farmland. Birds, squirrels, and mouselike
mammals called jerboas live in the steppes. Antelope live in the eastern steppes.
The semidesert and mountainous zone, the
southernmost zone in Russia, has diverse soils and climate due to variations
in elevation. It includes the dry, semidesert lowlands near the Caspian Sea, as
well as the lush vegetation and mild climate of the Caucasus Mountains.
Geologists also divide Russia into five
land regions that differ from the soil and vegetation zones. From west to east,
the regions are (1) the European Plain, (2) the Ural Mountains, (3) the West
Siberian Plain, (4) the Central Siberian Plateau, and (5) the East Siberian
Uplands.
The European Plain makes up most of the European part of Russia. It is the most densely populated
region in the country. The European Plain is predominantly flat to gently
rolling, averaging about 180 metres above sea level. Most of the nation's
industries are there, but the plain is poor in natural resources. Forest covers
much of it. The region is home to a variety of animal life. The Caucasus
Mountains rise at the southern edge of the plain, between the Black and the
Caspian seas. The mountains include 5,642-metre Mount Elbrus, the highest
point in Europe.
The Ural Mountains form the traditional boundary between the European and Asian parts of
Russia. These mountains, worn down by streams, reach an average height of only
about 610 metres. The middle and southern Ural Mountains are rich in deposits
of iron, copper, and other metals. The middle section is the most heavily
populated and highly industrialiied'area. Major cities in the region include
Yekaterinburg and Chelyabinsk.
The West Siberian Plain is the largest level region in the world. This enormous plain covers
more than 2.6 million square kilometres and rises no more than 150 metres above
sea level. It is drained by the Ob River system, which flows northward into
the Arctic Ocean. But drainage is poor, and the plain is marshy. Rich in oil
and natural gas deposits, the West Siberian Plain is being developed rapidly.
The cities of Novosibirsk and Omsk lie in the region.
The Central Siberian Plateau slopes upward toward the south from coastal plains along the Arctic
Ocean. It has an average height of about 610 metres. Streams cut deeply through
the region. The Sayan and Baikal mountains rise more than 3,350 metres along
the plateau's southern edge. Thick pine forests cover much of the Central
Siberian Plateau, and its climate reaches extremes of heat and cold. The region
has a wide variety of rich mineral deposits. Krasnoyarsk and Irkutsk are its
largest cities.
The East Siberian Uplands are mainly a wilderness of mountains and plateaus. The mountains rise to
3,000 metres and form part of a series of ranges along the eastern coast of
Asia and some offshore islands. About 25 active volcanoes are found on the
Kamchatka Peninsula. The tallest volcano, snow-capped Klyuchevskaya, rises
4,750 metres. The region has valuable mineral resources, but its harsh climate
makes it difficult to tap
them. Vladivostok on the Pacific Ocean and
Khabarovsk on the Amur River are the region's most important cities
Rivers and lakes
Russia's many large rivers have served as
important means of communication and commerce. The construction of canals further improved
these activities.
The Lena River in Siberia, 4,400
kilometres long, is the longest river in Russia. It empties into the Arctic
Ocean Other major rivers in Siberia include the Amur, Ob, and Yenisey rivers,
all frozen seven to nine months a year. The Volga River is the longest river in
European Russia. The river originates in the Valdai Hills northwest of Moscow
and flows 3,531 kilometres to the Caspian Sea. The Volga freezes for about
three months each year. The Don and Northern Dvina rivers are also in European
Russia.
Russia has about 200,000 lakes. The
Caspian Sea, a saltwater lake 28 metres below sea level, is the world's largest
inland body of water. It touches the southern part of European Russia. Lake
Ladoga, near St. Petersburg, covers 17,703 square kilometres. It is the
largest lake entirely in Europe. Lake Baikal, near the Baikal Mountains, is the
deepest lake in the world. It plunges 1,620 metres deep.
Climate
Russia is known for its long and bitter
winters. The country's hostile climate helped stop various invaders during its
history, including the large armies of Napoleon in 1812 and of Adolf Hitler in
1941 and 1942. In the Moscow region, snow covers the ground for about five
months each year. In the northernmost part of Russia, snow abounds for eight to
nine months a year. The small percentage of Russia's land that is fit for
agriculture has a short growing season and insufficient rainfall. Half the
land has permafrost beneath the surface. Most of the coastal waters, lakes, and
rivers freeze for much of the year.
Russia's weather varies from extremely
cold to extremely hot. Northeastern Siberia is one of the coldest regions in
the world. January temperatures there average below —46 °C. Temperatures as
low as —68 °C have been recorded. The average July temperature in this region is 16
°C, but it can climb to nearly 38 °C. No other part of the world registers such
a wide range of temperatures.
Precipitation (rain, melted snow, and other forms of moisture) is light to moderate.
The European Plain and parts of the East Siberian Uplands receive the most
rain. Vast inland areas get little rain. The heaviest snowfalls— up to 120 centimetres of snow a
year—occur in western and central Siberia.
Economy
In the Soviet Union, central government
agencies planned almost all aspects of the economy. The government owned and
controlled all factories and farms, and private businesses were illegal. Soviet
leaders changed Russia from a farming country into an industrial giant. Heavy
industry—such as chemicals, construction, machine tools, and steel—developed
rapidly. Government ministries supplied factories with materials, set production
quotas, and told managers what to produce and to whom to sell their goods. This
planning led to rapid industrial development and impressive economic gains.
But once the economy developed, central control began to suppress new ideas and
discourage quality.
Russia inherited the successes and
problems of the former Soviet Union's industrial policy. The Russian government
is working to convert state-owned property, including large factories and
farms, to private ownership. Many small businesses and joint ventures with
foreign partners have started. Russia turned to Western countries and japan
for assistance in modernizing and restructuring its manufacturing sector.
When the Soviet Union collapsed, the
economy was in a state of disarray. To stabilize the Russian economy, reduce
inflation, and attract foreign investment, the government plans to allow the
conversion of the rouble into other forms of currency. This will enable it to
be exchanged for other currencies at international rates. The Russian
government has also begun to set up a modern banking system. The government
lifted price controls on most items in 1992, and prices soared. At that time,
most people's incomes remained near previous levels, putting many items out of
their reach. Though incomes have risen gradually in the mid-1990s, most
Russians have not yet reached the standard of living that they had before the
collapse of the Soviet Union.
The Russian government's bold break from
past Soviet economic policies caused great instability in the early and
mid-1990's. Industrial output fell, and inflation rose dramatically. The links
between economy and government that existed in the Soviet Union had broken
down, but new institutions had not yet replaced them.
On the positive side, Russia has a skilled
labour force and an abundance of natural resources. Many new businesses have
been started throughout the country, and about two-thirds of the state-owned
businesses were privatized by the mid-1990s.
Natural resources. Russia is one of the richest countries in terms of natural resources.
It has the world's largest forest reserves, enormous energy supplies, vast
stretches of farmland, extensive mineral deposits, and many potential sources
of hydroelectric power. Russia also has a wide variety of plant and animal
life.
Manufacturing. Heavy industry is the most highly developed sector of the Russian
economy. The machine- building industry is concentrated in Moscow and St. Petersburg,
along the Volga River, and in the Ural Mountains. It makes various types of
tractors and other heavy machinery and electrical equipment. The chemical industry
produces chemical fibres, mineral fertilizers, petrochemicals, plastics, soda
ash, and synthetic resins. The construction materials industry is also
important.
The Moscow area is Russia's leading
manufacturing centre. Its factories produce chemicals, electrical equipment,
electronics, motor vehicles, processed foods,
steel, and textiles. Ships and industrial
equipment are manufactured in St. Petersburg. Metal processing and machinery
production are important in the Urals. Most oil refining takes place in the
Volga-Urals region. New industries are being developed in Siberia to make use
of the region's mineral and hydroelectric resources Light industry,
particularly textile production, is centred
in the region around Moscow and along the
Volga River. The paper industry operates along the southern edge of the forest
belt.
Agriculture. Russia has a large amount of farmland But a short growing season,
insufficient rainfall, and a lack of fertile soil make farming difficult. The Soviet Union's inefficient system of state-run
farms added to Russia's agricultural problems.
There are about 15,000 large,
state-controlled farms in Russia. About half are state farms operated like
government factories, called sovkhozy. Workers on sovkhozy receive wages. The rest are collective farms called
kol- khozy, which are government-controlled but managed in part by farmers.
By the mid-1990's, over 260,000 private
farms had been established. But these farms included only a tiny percentage of
Russia's farmland. New laws called for the breakup of unprofitable government
farms and for more aid to independent farmers. Nevertheless, the transition to
private farms proved to be slow and difficult.
Approximately 13 per cent of Russia's land
is cropland. One of the main agricultural regions is the Black Earth Belt, a
portion of the steppes stretching from the Ukrainian border to southwestern
Siberia that is famous for its dark chernozem soil. Other important farming regions
are the Volga area, the northern Caucasus Mountains, and western Siberia.
Russia is one of the world's major grain producers. However, the country still
must import grain for food. Major crops grown in Russia include barley, flax,
fruit, oats, potatoes, rye, sugar beet, sunflowers; vegetables, and wheat.
Russian farmers also grow many fodder
crops— that is, food crops for animals. Grasses
and corn are the most important fodder crops.
Livestock breeding is another main
component of Russian agriculture. Cattle, pigs, and sheep are the most
important livestock raised in the country.
Mining. Russia has vast amounts of most of the minerals used'in modern
industrial production. The country has abundant coal deposits and huge reserves
of petroleum and natural gas. Other resources include calcium phosphate
minerals and phosphorites, used in fertilizers, and diamonds.
Russia is a major producer of iron ore,
manganese, nickel, and the platinum-group metals, a group of rare metals
including platinum and iridium. Nickel is mined in the Kola Peninsula, eastern
Siberia, and the southern Urals. Platinum is mined in the Urals and in northern
Siberia. The country ranks as a leading producer of gold, lead, salt, tin,
tungsten, and zinc. It is also an important source of copper and silver.
Bauxite, a mineral used in making aluminium, is mined in western Siberia.
Fishing industry. In the northern Barents Sea and the White Sea, Russian fishing crews
catch cod, haddock, herring, salmon, and other fish. Sturgeon are caught in the
Caspian Sea. Caviar, the salted eggs of sturgeon, is a famous Russian delicacy. Crews also
fish in inland waterways, the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, and the Baltic and
Black seas.
Service industries are industries that produce services, not goods. In the former Soviet
Union, these industries were underdeveloped. Most service-industry workers
were poorly trained and underpaid. They had little incentive to satisfy their
customers, who competed for services that were in short supply.
Today, private economic activity in the
service sector is flourishing. Many individuals and families are starting small
businesses such as restaurants, barbershops, dry cleaners, and taxi services.
Energy sources. Russia has enormous natural energy reserves, especially petroleum and
natural gas. The country is the world's largest producer of crude oil. Oil
fields in western Siberia supply more than half of Russia's petroleum. The
Volga-Ural Oil-Gas Region, the Northern Caucasus, and the Timan-Pechora Oil-Gas
Basin are also important. Russia also produces large amounts of coal and
natural gas. Pipelines carry oil and natural gas from western Siberia to
European Russia.
The country's largest coal mines lie in
the Kuznetsk and Pechora basins. Peat bogs also furnish some fuel.
Most of Russia's electric power plants are
steam- turbine plants. Huge hydroelectric plants also generate electricity.
Russia also ranks as a major producer of nuclear power.
Trade. The Soviet Union traded mainly with Communist Eastern European
countries such as Hungary, and Poland. Since the overthrow of the Communist
regimes of Eastern Europe and the breakup of the Soviet Union, Russia's trading
activity with those countries has declined. Russia's main trading partners
today are the
other former Soviet republics, the Czech
Republic, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, and the United States. Trade with some
developing nonsocialist countries, such as Syria and Turkey, has increased. In
addition, Russia exchanges goods with Cuba and Finland.
Russia exports mostly petroleum, natural
gas, minerals, machinery, chemicals, and wood and paper products. Its major
imports include consumer goods, industrial equipment, foods and beverages, and
machinery.
Transportation and communication. Because of Russia's vast size and harsh climate, transportation facilities
and communications systems are unevenly distributed throughout the country.
They are less efficient than the transportation and communications networks of
Western Europe, the United States, and Japan.
Railways handle most freight
transportation in Russia. But the system is heavily loaded and in urgent need
of modernization. Russia's poorly developed road network, combined with the
country's vast size, make truck transport ineffective and costly. It makes up
only about 5 per cent of total freight movement. River transportation carries
only a small percentage of Russia's freight traffic, because most rivers are
frozen for much of the year. Canals such as the Volga-Don Canal and the Moscow
Canal, which connects Moscow with the Volga River, make an important
contribution to river traffic.
Aeroflot is Russia's national airline, it
had been the national airline of the Soviet Union. Aeroflot carries freight
and passengers between all major Russian cities and between Russia and many
other countries. Fuel shortages and rising ticket costs have reduced air
traffic.
Russia's most important
seaports—Arkhangelsk, Kaliningrad, Murmansk, Nakhodka, St. Petersburg, and
Vladivostok—handle a large portion of the country's foreign trade. However,
the water at many Russian ports is frozen for many months of the year.
Car production is increasing in Russia,
but it remains small in comparison with other industrial nations. Only about 56
of every 1,000 Russians own cars. It is difficult for car owners to obtain
servicing and spare parts nationwide.
Public transportation is modern and
inexpensive, but crowded. Several large cities, including Moscow, have clean,
efficient underground railway systems. Buses, trams, and trolleys also operate
in the cities. Bicycles are seen in large cities, but they are more common in
rural and holiday areas. Horse-drawn carriages can also be found in rural parts
of Russia.
Russia has an underdeveloped
telecommunications
system. It takes years to install
telephones in new apartment complexes.
During most of the history of the Soviet
Union, the government controlled all communications media, including
broadcasting, film production, and publishing The government required all
broadcasts and publications to follow Communist Party policies. Such censorship
began to ease in the late 1980s, and it no longer exists in Russia. As a
result, the number of independent newspapers and publishing houses has
increased dramatically. Most families own radios and television sets.
Videocassette recorders are in great demand, but they are expensive and hard to
find.
Russia's unique geographic location
astride both Europe and Asia has influenced its history and shaped its
destiny. Russia never has been entirely an Eastern or a Western country. As a
result, Russian intellectuals have long debated the country's development and
contribution to world history.
This section traces the major developments
of Russian history. In 1917, revolutionaries overthrew the Russian czarist
government. They changed Russia's name to the Russian Soviet Federative
Socialist Republic (R.S.F.S.R.). In 1922, the R.S.F.S.R. and three other republics
formed a new nation called the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (U.S.S.RJ,
also known as the Soviet Union. The U.S.S.R. broke apart in 1991, and Belarus,
Russia, and Ukraine invited the other republics to join a federation called the
Commonwealth of Independent States. For more detailed information about this
period, see Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (History).
Early days. Beginning about 1200 B.C, the Cimmerians, a Balkan people, lived north
of the Black Sea in what is now southern Ukraine. They were defeated about 700
B.C by the Scythians, an Iranian people from central Asia. The Scythians
controlled the region until about 200 b!g They fell to the Sarmatians, another
Iranian group. The Scythians and the Sarmatians lived in close contact with
Creek colonies—later controlled by the Romans—along the northern coast of the
Black Sea. They absorbed many Creek and Roman ways of life through trade,
marriage, and other contacts. See Cimmerians.
Germanic tribes from the West, called the
Goths, conquered the'region about A.D. 200. The Goths ruled until about 370,
when they were defeated by the Huns, a warlike Asian people. The Huns' empire
broke up after their leader, Attila, died in 453. The Avars, a tribe related to
the Huns, began to rule the region in the mid-500s. The Khazars, another Asian
people, won the southern Volga and northern Caucasus regions in the mid-60ffs.
They became Jews and established a busy trade with other peoples. See Goths; Hun.
By the 800rs, Slavic groups had
built many towns in eastern Europe, including what became the European part of
Russia. They had also developed an active trade. No one knows where the Slavs
came from. Some historians believe they came in the 400's from what is now Poland.
Others think the Slavs were farmers in the Black Sea region under Scythian rule
or earlier. Slavs of what
are now Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine
became known as East Slavs. See Slavs.
The earliest written Russian history of
the 800s is the Primary Chronicle, written in Kiev, Ukraine, probably in 1111. It says that quarrelling
Slavic groups in the town of Novgorod asked a Viking tribe to rule them and
bring order to the land. The Vikings were called the Varangian Russes.
Historians who accept the Primary
Chronicle as true believe that Russia took its name
from this tribe. According to the Primary
Chronicle, a group of related Varangian families
headed by Rurik arrived in 862. Rurik settled in Novgorod, and the area became
known as the "land of the Rus."
Many historians doubt that the Slavs of
Novgorod invited the Vikings to rule them. They believe the Vikings invaded
the region. Some historians claim the word Rus, from which Russia took its
name, was the name of an early Slavic tribe in the Black Sea region. It is
known, however, that the first state founded by East Slavs— called Kievan
Rus—was established at present-day Kiev in the 800's. Kiev, now the capital of
Ukraine, was an important trading centre on the Dnepr River. Whether it had
been developed by the Vikings is unclear.
The state of Kievan Rus. The Primary Chronicle states that Oleg, a Varangian, captured Kiev in 882 and ruled as its
prince. During the 900's, the other principalities (regions
ruled by a prince) of Kievan Rus recognized Kiev's major importance. Kiev lay
on the main trade route connecting the Baltic Sea with the Black Sea and the
Byzantine Empire. In addition, Kiev's forces defended Kievan Rus against
invading tribes from the south and east. The ruler of Kiev came to be called grand prince and
ranked above the other princes of Kievan Rus.
In 988, Grand Prince Vladimir I [Volodymyr in Ukrainian)
became a Christian. At that time, the East Slavs worshipped the forces of
nature. Vladimir made Christianity the state religion, and most people under
his rule turned Christian. Vladimir later became a saint of the Russian
Orthodox Church.
Several grand princes were strong rulers,
but Kiev's power began to decrease after the mid-1 OOffs. The rulers of other
Kievan Rus principalities grew in power, and they fought many destructive wars.
In Novgorod and a few other towns with strong local governments, the princes
were driven out. Badly weakened by civil wars and without strong central
control, Kievan Rus fell to huge armies of Mongols called Tatars, or Tartars, who swept across Russia from
the east during the 1200's (see Tatars).
Mongol rule. In 1237, Batu, a grandson of the conqueror Genghis Khan, led between
150,000 and 200,000 Mongol troops into Russia. The Mongols destroyed one
Russian town after another. In 1240, they destroyed Kiev, and Russia became
part of the Mongol Empire. It was included in a section called the Golden
Horde. The capital of the Golden Horde was at Sarai, near what is now Volgograd.
See Mongol Empire.
Batu forced the surviving Russian princes
to pledge allegiance to the Golden Horde and to pay heavy taxes. From time to
time, the Mongols left their capital and wiped out the people of various areas
because of their disloyalty. The Mongols also appointed the Russian grand
prince and forced many Russians to serve in their armies. But they interfered
little with Russian life in general. The Mongols were chiefly interested in
maintaining their power and collecting taxes.
During the period of Mongol rule, which
ended in the late 1400s, the new ideas and reforming spirit of the Renaissance
were dramatically changing many aspects of life in Western Europe. But under
Mongol control, Russia was cut off from these important Western influences.
The rise of Moscow. In the early 1300s, Prince Yuri of Moscow married the sister of the
Golden Horde's khan (ruler). Yuri was appointed the Russian grand prince about 1318. Mongol
troops helped him put down threats to his leadership from other principalities.
The Mongols also began letting the grand prince of Moscow collect taxes for
them. This practice started with Ivan I (called the Moneybag) about 1330. Ivan
kept some of the tax money. He bought much land and expanded his territory
greatly. Other princes and boyars (high- ranking landowners) began to serve in Moscow's army and
government. In addition, Ivan persuaded the chief bishop of the Russian
Orthodox Church to remain in Moscow. Until then, Kiev had been the spiritual
centre of Russia.
Moscow grew stronger and richer. But the
Golden Horde grew weaker, chiefly because of struggles for leadership. In 1380,
Grand Prince Dmitri defeated a Mongol force in the Battle of Kulikovo, near the
Don River. The victory briefly freed Moscow of Mongol control. The Mongols recaptured
Moscow in 1382, but they no longer believed they could not be beaten.
During the late 1400s, Moscow became the
most powerful Russian city. Ivan III (called Ivan the Great) won control of
Moscow's main rivals, Novgorod and Tver, and great numbers of boyars entered
his service. In 1480, Ivan made the final break from Mongol control by refusing
to pay taxes to the Golden Horde. Mongol troops moved toward Moscow but turned
back to defend their capital from Russian attack.
Ivan the Terrible. After the rise of Moscow, its grand prince came to be called czar. In 1547, Ivan IV, also known
as Ivan the Terrible, became the first ruler to be crowned czar. Ivan made the
power of the czar over all Russia complete.
Ivan was brutal, extremely suspicious, and
perhaps, at times, insane. He formed a special police force and began a reign
of terror in which he ordered the arrest and murder of hundreds of aristocrats.
Ivan gave his victims' estates as payment to the service gentry (landowners
serving in the army and government). He also established strict rules
concerning the number of warriors and horses each landowner had to supply to
the army. Ivan burned many towns and villages, and he killed church leaders who
opposed him. In a fit of rage, Ivan even struck and killed his oldest son.
The number of service gentry increased
rapidly. But their estates had no value unless the peasants remained on the
land and farmed it. Ivan and later czars passed a series of laws that bound the
peasants to the land as serfs. Serfdom became the economic basis of Russian power. The development of
Russian serfdom differed sharply from changes occurring in Western Europe at
the time. There, during the Renaissance, the growth of trade led to the use of
money as royal payment. It also led to the disappearance of serfdom in Western
Europe. See Serf.
Ivan fought Tatars at Astrakhan and Kazan
to the southeast, and he won their lands. Russian forces then crossed the Ural
Mountains and conquered western Siberia. Ivan also tried to win lands northwest
to the Baltic Sea, but he was defeated by Lithuanian, Polish, and Swedish
armies. See Ivan.
The Time of Troubles developed because of a breakdown of the czar's power after Ivan's death.
Theodore I, Ivan's second son, was a weak czar. His wife's brother, Boris
Codunov, became the real ruler of Russia. Theodore's younger brother, Dmitri,
was found dead in 1591, and Theodore died in 1598 without leaving a male heir.
The ZemskiiSobor (Land
Council), a kind of parliament with little power, elected Boris czar. But a
man believed to be Gregory Otrepiev, a former monk, posed as Dmitri. This False Dmitri claimed
Dmitri had not died, and he fled to Lithuania to avoid arrest. In 1604, False
Dmitri invaded Russia with Polish troops. The invaders were joined by many
discontented Russians. This invasion marked the beginning of the Time of
Troubles. Russia was torn by civil war, invasion, and political confusion
until 1613.
False Dmitri became czar in 1605, but a
group of boyars killed him the next year. Prince Basil Shuisky then became
czar. In 1610, Polish invaders occupied Moscow. They ruled through a powerless
council of boyars until 1612. Meanwhile, a new False Dmitri and a number of
other pretenders to the throne won many followers. Peasant revolts swept
through Russia. Landowners and frontier people called Cossacks fought each other, and
sometimes joined together to fight powerful aristocrats (see Cossacks). The
Polish control of Moscow led the Russians to unite their forces and drive out
the invaders. They recaptured the capital in 1612.
The early Romanovs. After the Poles were defeated, there was no one of royal birth to take
the throne. In 1613, the Zemskii Sobor elected Michael Romanov czar. The
Romanov czars ruled Russia for the next 300 years, until the February
Revolution of 1917 ended czarist rule. See Romanov.
During the 1600s, Russia annexed much of
Ukraine and extended its control of Siberia eastward to the Pacific Ocean.
During this same period, the Russian Orthodox Church made changes in religious
texts and ceremonies. People called Old Believers objected
to these changes and broke away from the church. This group still follows the
old practices today.
Peter the Great. In 1682, a struggle for power resulted in the crowning of two half
brothers—Peter I (later known as Peter the Great) and Ivan V—as co-czars. Both
were children, and Ivan's sister Sophia ruled as regent { temporary ruler) until Peter's
followers forced her to retire in 1689. Peter made close contact with the many
Western Europeans living in Moscow and absorbed much new information from them.
He came into full power in 1696, when Ivan died.
Peter was greatly influenced by ideas of
commerce and government then popular in Western Europe. A powerful ruler, he
improved Russia's military and made many important conquests. During Peter's
reign, Russia expanded its territory to the Baltic Sea in the Great Northern
War with Sweden. In 1703, Peter founded St. Petersburg on the Baltic, and he
moved the capital there in 1712. After travelling throughout Europe, he introduced
Western-type clothing, factories, and schools in Russia, and reorganized
Russia's government to make it run more efficiently.
Peter forced Russia's nobility to adopt
many Western customs. He also increased the czar's power over the aristocrats,
church officials, and serfs. He dealt harshly with those who opposed these
changes. Under Peter, the legal status of serfs further deteriorated. See Peter
I, the Great.
Catherine the Great. After Peter's death in 1725, a series of struggles for the throne took
place. The service gentry and the leading nobles were on opposite sides.
Candidates for the throne who were supported by the service gentry won most of
these struggles and rewarded their followers. The rulers increased the gentry's
power over the serfs and local affairs. The gentry's enforced service to the
state was gradually reduced. It was ended altogether in 1762.
Magnificent royal parties and other
festivities, all in the latest Western fashion, took place during the 1700s.
The arts were promoted, and many new schools were started, mainly for the upper
classes. The Russian Imperial School of Ballet was founded, and Italian opera
and chamber music were brought to Russia. It also became fashionable in Russia
to repeat the newest Western ideas on freedom and social reform, especially
during the rule of Empress Catherine II, known as Catherine the Great. In 1767,
Catherine called a large legislative assembly to reform Russian laws. However,
the assembly achieved nothing.
Most Russians remained in extreme poverty
and ignorance during this period. In 1773 and 1774, the peasants' discontent
boiled over in a revolt led by Emelian Pugachev, a Cossack. The revolt swept
through Russia from the Ural Mountains to the Volga River. It spread almost to
Moscow before being crushed by government troops. In 1775, Catherine further
tightened the landowners' control over the serfs.
Under Catherine the Great, Russia rose to
new importance as a major world power. In the late 1700s, Austria, Prussia,
and Russia gradually divided Poland among themselves. Russia gained nearly all
of Belarus, Lithuania, and Ukraine from Poland. In wars against the Ottoman
Empire (based in present-day Turkey), Russia gained the
Crimea and other Ottoman lands. Catherine died in 1796. She was succeeded by
her son, Paul, who became czar. See Catherine.
Alexander I. Paul's five-year rule ended with his murder in 1801. Alexander I,
Paul's son, became czar and talked about freeing the serfs, building schools
for all young Russians, and even giving up the throne and making Russia a
republic. He introduced several reforms, such as freeing many political
prisoners and spreading Western ways and ideas. But he did nothing to lessen
the czar's total power or to end serfdom. Alexander knew that Russia's military
strength and its position as a major world power depended on income provided by
serfdom. Under Alexander s rule, Russia continued to win territory from Persia,
Sweden, and the Ottoman Empire.
In June 1812, Napoleon led the Grand Army
of France into Russia. He wanted to stop Russian trade with Great Britain,
France's chief enemy, and to halt Russian expansion in the Balkan region. The
French swept forward and reached Moscow in September 1812. Most of the people
had left the city, and Napoleon and his army entered easily.
Soon afterward, fire destroyed most of
Moscow. Historians believe the Russians themselves set the fire.
After 35 days, the French left the city
because they feared they might not survive the approaching bitter Russian
winter. They began a disastrous retreat with little food and under continual
attack by the Russians. Of the estimated 600,000 French troops in Russia, about
500,000 died, deserted, or were captured. Russia then became a major force in the
campaign by several European countries that defeated Napoleon. See Napoleon I
(Disaster in Russia).
Although Alexander had begun some reforms,
harsh rule continued in Russia. Beginning in 1816, many young aristocrats
became revolutionaries. They formed secret groups, wrote constitutions for Russia, and prepared to revolt.
Alexander died in 1825, and Nicholas 1 became czar. In December of 1825, a
group of revolutionaries, later called the Decembrists, took
action. At the urging of the Decembrists, about 3,000 soldiers and officers
gathered in Senate Square in St. Petersburg, and government troops arrived to
face them. After several hours, the Decembrists fired a few shots. Government
cannons ended the revolt
Nicholas I. The Decembrist revolt deeply impressed and frightened Nicholas. He
removed aristocrats, whom he now distrusted, from government office and replaced
them with professional military officers. He tightened his control over the
press and education, reduced travel outside Russia, and prohibited
organizations that might have political influence. He established six special
government departments. These departments, which included a secret police
system, handled important economic and political matters. Through the special
departments, Nicholas avoided the regular processes of Russian government and
increased his control over Russian life.
In spite of Nicholas' harsh rule, the
period was one of outstanding achievement in Russian literature. Nikolai Gogol,
Mikhail Lermontov, Alexander Pushkin, and others wrote their finest works.
Fyodor Dostoevsky, Leo Tolstoy, and Ivan Turgenev began their careers. Many
educated Russians began to debate the values of Westernized Russian life
against those of old Russian life. The pro-Western group argued that Russia
must learn from and catch up with the West economically and politically. The
other group argued for the old Russian ways, including the czarist system, a
strong church, and the quiet life of the Russian countryside.
Nicholas became known as the "policeman
of Europe” because he sent troops to put down revolutions in Poland and
Hungary. Nicholas also declared himself the defender of, the Eastern Orthodox
Churches and fought two wars with the Muslim Ottoman Empire. In the war of 1828
and 1829, Russia gained much territory around the Black Sea. Russia also won
the right to move merchant ships through the straits connecting the Black Sea
with the Mediterranean Sea. The Ottoman Empire controlled these straits.
In 1853, the Crimean War broke out between
Russia and the Ottoman Empire. Great Britain and France aided the Ottomans.
These countries objected to Russian expansion in the Black Sea region. Russia
was defeated and signed the Treaty of Paris in 1856. This treaty forced Russia
to give up some of the territory it had taken earlier from the Ottoman Empire,
and the pact forbade warships on and fortifications around the Black Sea. See
Crimean War; Russo-Turkish wars.
Expansion in Asia. After its defeat in the Crimean War, Russia began to expand in Asia. In
the Far East, Russia won disputed territories from China. In 1858 and 1860, the
Chinese signed treaties giving Russia lands north of the Amur River and east of
the Ussuri River. By 1864, Russian forces defeated rebel tribes in the Caucasus.
Central Asia was won during a series of military campaigns from 1865 to 1876.
In 1867, Russia sold its Alaskan territory to the United States for
$7,200,000 (see Alaska [History]).
Alexander II. Nicholas 1 died in 1855, during the Crimean War. His son, Alexander II,
became czar. Russia's defeat in the Crimean War taught Alexander a lesson. He
realized that Russia had to catch up with the West to remain a major power.
Alexander began a series of reforms to strengthen the economy and Russian life
in general. In 1861, he freed the serfs and distributed land among them. He
began developing railways and organizing a banking system. Alexander promoted
reforms in education, reduced controls on the press, and introduced a jury
system and other reforms in the courts. He also established forms of
self-government in the towns and villages.
But many young Russians believed that
Alexander's reforms did not go far enough. Some revolutionary groups wanted to
establish socialism in Russia. Others wanted a constitution and a republic.
These groups formed a number of public and secret organizations. After a
revolutionary tried to kill Alexander in 1866, the czar began to weaken many of
his reforms. The revolutionaries then argued that Alexander had never been a
sincere reformer at all. During the mid-1870's, a group of revolutionaries
tried to get the peasants to revolt. They wanted to achieve either socialism or
anarchism (absence of government) for Russia (see Anarchism). After this effort
failed, a terrorist group called the People's Will tried several times to kill
the czar. Alexander then decided to set up a new reform programme. But in 1881,
he was killed by a terrorist's bomb in St. Petersburg.
Alexander III, Alexander's son, became czar and soon began a programme of harsh rule.
Alexander III limited the freedom of the press and of the universities,
and he sharply reduced the powers of
Russia's local self- governments. He set up a special bank to help the aristocrats
increase their property. He also appointed officials called land captains from among the aristocrats and gave them much political power over the
peasants. Alexander started some programmes to help the peasants and
industrial workers. But their living and working conditions improved very
little during his reign. See Alexander III (czarl.
Nicholas II became Russia's next, and last, czar in 1894. The revolutionary movement
had been kept in check until the 1890's, when a series of bad harvests caused
starvation among the peasants. In addition, as industrialization increased,
discontent grew among the rising middle class and workers in the cities. Discontented
Russians formed various political organizations, of which three became
important. (1) The liberal constitutionalists wanted to
replace czarist rule with a Western type of parliamentary government. 12) The social revolutionaries tried to promote a revolution among peasants and workers in the cities. (3)
The Marxists wanted to promote revolution among the city workers. The Marxists
followed the socialist teachings of Karl Marx, a German social philosopher (see
Marx, Karl). In 1898, the Marxists established the Russian Social Democratic
Labour Party.
Between 1899 and 1904, the discontent of
the Russian people increased. Worker strikes and other forms of protest took
place. In 1903, the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party split into two
groups—the Bolsheviks (members of the majority) and the Mensheviks (members of the minority). V. I. Lenin was the leader of the
Bolsheviks, later called Communists. See Bolsheviks; Mensheviks; Lenin, V. I.
The Revolution of 1905. On Jan. 22, 1905, thousands of unarmed workers marched to the czar's
Winter Palace in St. Petersburg. The workers were on strike, and they planned
to ask Nicholas II for reforms. Government troops fired on the crowd and killed
or wounded hundreds of marchers. After this Bloody Sunday slaughter, the revolutionary movement, led mainly by the liberal
constitutionalists, gained much strength.
In February, Nicholas agreed to establish an elected Duma (parliament) to
advise him. However, more strikes broke out during the summer, and peasant and
military groups revolted. In part, the growing unrest was linked to the increasingly
unpopular Russo-japanese War. This war had broken out in February 1904 after a
Japanese attack on Russian ships. The war ended with Russia's defeat in
September 1905.
In October 1905, a general strike
paralysed the country. Revolutionaries in St. Petersburg formed a soviet (council)
called the Soviet of Workers' Deputies. Nicholas then granted the Duma the
power to pass or reject all proposed laws. Many Russians were satisfied, but
many others were not. The revolution continued, especially in Moscow, where
the army crushed a serious uprising in December.
Each of the first two Dumas, which met in
1906 and 1907, was dissolved after a few months. The Dumas could not work with
Nicholas and his high-ranking officials, who refused to give up much power.
Nicholas illegally changed the election law and made-the,selection of Duma candidates
less democratic. The peasants and workers were allowed far fewer
representatives in the Duma than the upper classes. The third Duma served from
1907 to 1912, and the fourth Duma met from 1912 to 1917. During this period,
Russia made important advances in fields such as the arts, education, farming,
and industry.
World War I. By the time World War I began in 1914, Europe was divided into two tense
armed camps. On one side was the Triple Entente (Triple Agreement), consisting
of Russia, France, and Great Britain. Russia and France had agreed in 1894 to
defend each other against attack. France and Britain had signed the Entente
Cor- diale (Friendly Understanding) in 1904, and Russia had signed a similar
agreement with Britain in 1907. The Triple Entente developed from these
treaties. Opposing the Triple Entente was the Triple Alliance, formed in 1882
by Austria-Hungary, Germany, and Italy. See Triple Entente; Triple Alliance.
On Aug. 1,1914, Germany declared war on
Russia. Soon afterward, Russia changed the German-sounding name of St.
Petersburg to Petrograd. German troops crushed the Russian army at Tannenberg,
in East Prussia. However, the Russians defeated an Austrian army in the Battles
of Lemberg in the Galicia region of Austria- Hungary.
In 1915, Austrian and German forces drove
back the Russians. The next year, the Russians attacked along a 113-kilometre
front in Galicia. They advanced about 80 kilometres. Russian troops moved into
the Carpathian Mountains in 1917, but the Germans pushed them back. For the
story of Russia in the war, see World War I.
The February Revolution. During World War 1, the Russian economy could not meet the needs of the
soldiers and also those of the people at home. The railways carried military
supplies and could not serve the cities. The people suffered severe shortages
of food, fuel, and housing. Russian troops at the front were loyal, but the
untrained soldiers behind the fighting lines began to question the war. They
knew they would probably be sent to the front and be killed. The soldiers and
civilians behind the lines grew increasingly dissatisfied.
By the end of 1916, almost all educated
Russians opposed the czar. Nicholas had removed many capable executives from
high government offices and replaced them with weak, unpopular officials. He
was accused of crippling the war effort by such acts. Many Russians blamed his
action on the influence of Grigori Rasputin, adviser to the czar and the
czarina. The royal couple believed that Rasputin was a holy man who was saving
their sick son's life. In December 1916, a group of nobles murdered Rasputin.
But the officials who supposedly had been appointed through his influence
remained.
See Rasputin, Grigori E.
In March 1917, the people of Russia
revolted. (The month was February in the old Russian calendar, which was
replaced in 1918.) Violent riots and strikes over shortages of bread and coal
accompanied the uprising in Petrograd, the capital of Russia. (Petrograd was
known as St. Petersburg until 1914, was renamed Leningrad in 1924, and again
became St. Petersburg in 1991.1 Nicholas ordered the Duma to dissolve itself,
but it ignored his command and set up a provisional (temporary) government. Nicholas had lost all political support, and
he gave up the throne on March 15. Nicholas and his family were then
imprisoned. Bolshevik revolutionaries almost certainly shot them to death in
July 1918.
See Nicholas II (czar).
Many soviets were established in Russia at
the same time as the provisional government was formed. The soviets rivalled
the provisional government. Workers and soldiers tried to seize power in
Petrograd in July, but the attempt failed.
The October Revolution. In August 1917, General Lavr Kornilov tried to curb the growing power of
the soviets. But the attempt failed, and the Russian masses became
increasingly radical. On November 7 (October 25 in the old Russian calendar),
workers, soldiers, and sailors led by the Bolsheviks took over the Winter
Palace, a former royal residence that had become the headquarters of the
provisional government. They overthrew the
provisional government and formed a new
government headed by Lenin. Lenin immediately withdrew Russia from World War I.
The new government soon took over Russia's industries and also seized most of
the peasants' farm products.
In 1918, the Bolsheviks made Moscow the
capital of Russia. They also changed the name of the Russian Social Democratic
Labour Party to the Russian Communist Party. This name was later changed to the
Communist Party of the Soviet Union. See Communism.
Civil war and the formation of the
U.S.S.R. From 1918 to 1920, civil war raged between
the Communists and the anti-Communists over control of Russia. The
anti-Communists received support from several other countries, including
France, Great Britain, Japan, and the United States. Nevertheless, the
Communists defeated their opponents. They also established Communist rule in
Georgia, Ukraine, eastern Armenia, Belarus, and Central Asia. The civil war
contributed to the increasing discontent among the Russian people.
In 1921, more peasant uprisings and
workers' strikes broke out. That same year, Lenin established a New Economic
Policy (NEP) to strengthen Russia. Under this policy, the government
controlled the most important aspects of the economy, including banking,
foreign trade, heavy industry, and transportation. But small businesses could
control their own operations, and peasants could keep their farm products.
In December 1922, the Communist government
created a new nation called the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
(U.S.S.R.). It consisted of four republics—the Russian Soviet Federative
Socialist Republic, Byelorussia (as Belarus was renamed), Transcaucasia, and
Ukraine. By late 1940, Transcaucasia had been divided into Azerbaijan, Armenia,
and Georgia, and 10 more republics had been established, for a total of 16
republics. The new republics included what are now Estonia, Kazakhstan,
Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova (then Moldavia), Tajikistan,
Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan.
The Karelo-Finnish Soviet Socialist
Republic, established in 1940, was chanqed to an autonomous republic in 1956.
Stalin. Lenin died in 1924. Joseph Stalin, who had been general secretary of the
Communist Party since 1922, rapidly gained power. He defeated his rivals one by
one. By 1929, Stalin had become dictator of the Soviet Union.
In the late 192ffs, Stalin began a
socialist economic programme. It emphasized the development of heavy industry
and the combining of privately owned farms into large, government-run farms.
Many citizens of the Soviet Union opposed Stalin's policies. In the
mid-1930’s, Stalin started a programme of terror called the Great Purge. His
secret police arrested millions of people. Most of the prisoners were shot or
sent to prison labour camps. Many of those arrested had helped Stalin rise to
power. Stalin thus eliminated all possible threats to his power and tightened
his hold over the Soviet Union. See Stalin, Joseph.
World War II. By the late 1930's, German dictator Adolf Hitler was ready to conquer
Europe. In August 1939, the U.S.S.R. and Germany signed a nonaggression pact, a treaty agreeing that neither nation would attack the other. In
September, German forces invaded Poland from the west. The Soviet Union's
forces quickly occupied the eastern part of Poland.
In June 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet
Union and began to advance into the country. The turning point of the war in
the Soviet Union was the Soviet defeat of the Germans in the Battle of
Stalingrad (now Volgograd) in 1943. Soviet troops then drove the Germans back
out of the country and across eastern Europe. They attacked Berlin in April
1945. Berlin fell to the Soviets on May 2, and German troops surrendered to the
Allies five days later. In August 1945, the U.S.S.R. declared war on Japan.
Japan surrendered to the Allies on Sept. 2,1945, ending World War II. See World
War II.
The Cold War. After World War II ended, the Soviet Union extended the influence
of Communism into Eastern Europe. By early 1948, several countries had become Soviet satellites (countries controlled by the' Soviet Union). The Soviet satellites were
Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, Romania, and—later—East Germany.
The U.S.S.R. also influenced Communist
regimes in Albania and Yugoslavia. It cut off nearly all contact between its
satellites and the West Mutual distrust and suspicion between East and West
developed into a rivalry that became known as the Cold War. The Cold War
shaped the foreign policy of the Soviet Union and of many Western countries
until the late 1980's. See Cold War.
Stalin died on March 5, 1953. In September
of that year, Nikita Khrushchev became the head of the Communist Party. In
1958, he also became premier of the Soviet Union. Khrushchev eased the
terrorism that had characterized Stalin's dictatorship and relaxed some of the
restrictions on communication, trade, and travel between East and West.
However, the U.S.S.R. continued working to expand its influence in
non-Communist countries. Khrushchev improved Soviet relations with the West,
but many of his other policies failed. See Khrushchev, Nikita S.
In 1964, the highest-ranking Communists overthrew
Khrushchev. Leonid Brezhnev became Communist Party head, and Aleksei Kosygin
became premier. Brezhnev and Kosygin increased the production of consumer goods
and the construction of housing, and they expanded Soviet influence in Africa.
By the mid-1970's, Brezhnev was the most
powerful Soviet leader. He sought to ease tensions between East and West, a
policy that became known as detente. However, detente began to
collapse in the late 1970s. Relations between the Soviet Union and the United
States worsened over such issues as Soviet violations of human rights, the
Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, and an increase in the number of nuclear
weapons by both nations. See Brezhnev, Leonid I.
The rise of Gorbachev. In 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev became head of the Communist Party.
Gorbachev instituted many changes in the U.S.S.R., including increased freedom
of expression in politics, literature, and the arts. He worked to improve
relations between the
Soviet Union and the West and to reduce
government control over the Soviet economy. In 1989, the U.S.S.R. held its
first contested elections for the newly created Congress of People's Deputies.
The following year, the government voted to allow non-Communist political
parties in the Soviet Union. Many Communist Party members and other Soviet
officials opposed Gorbachev's reforms. But in March 1990, Gorbachev was
elected by the Congress of People's Deputies to the newly created office of
president. See Gorbachev, Mikhail Sergeyevich.
The breakup of the U.S.S.R. During the late 1980's, people in many parts of the Soviet
Union increased their demands for greater freedom from the central government.
In June 1990, the Russian republic declared that laws passed by its legislature
took precedence over laws passed by the central government. By the end of the
year, all 15 Soviet republics had made similar declarations.
In July 1991, Gorbachev and the leaders of
10 republics agreed to sign a treaty giving the republics a large amount of
self-government. Five of the republics were scheduled to sign the treaty on
August 20. But on August 19, conservative Communist Party leaders staged a
coup against Gorbachev's government. They imprisoned Gorbachev and his family
in their holiday home. The president of the Russian republic, Boris Yeltsin,
led popular opposition to the coup, which collapsed on August 21. After the
coup, Gorbachev regained his office of president. But he resigned as Communist
Party leader.
The collapse of the coup renewed the
republics' demands for more control over their own affairs. In September
1991, the Congress of People's Deputies established an interim government to
rule until a new union treaty and constitution could be written and approved.
This government included a State Council, made up of Gorbachev and the leaders
of the republics.
On December 8, 1991, Yeltsin and the
presidents of Belarus and Ukraine announced the formation of the Commonwealth
of Independent States (C.I.S.). They declared that the Soviet Union had ceased
to exist and invited the remaining republics to join the commonwealth. The
members would be independent countries tied by economic and defence links. Most
of the republics joined the Cl.S. Yeltsin took control of what remained of
the central government of the Soviet Union, including the Kremlin. On December
25,1991, Gorbachev resigned as Soviet president, and the Soviet Union ceased
to exist.
The new nation. With the end of the Soviet Union, the Russian republic resumed its
course as an independent nation. The breakup of the Soviet Union helped
eliminate much of the friction that still remained between the East and the
West. The Russian government slashed military spending in 1992. The government
also made significant cutbacks in the armed forces. The cutbacks, in turn, forced
large numbers of former military personnel to find homes and jobs as civilians.
After the breakup of the Soviet Union,
Russia agreed to maintain a supply of nuclear weapons. In 1992, the other
former Soviet republics with nuclear weapons on their lands—Ukraine, Belarus,
and Kazakhstan—agreed to eliminate all nuclear weapons on their territories
within seven years.
Russia had to establish new relationships
with the members of the C.I.S. Some Russian leaders wanted the country to take
a leading role. However, the smaller states feared domination by Russia because
of its great size and power.
In March 1992, all but two regions of
Russia signed a treaty that formed the basis of the new Russian nation.
Those two regions—Tatar and Chechen-lngush—wanted greater independence. In May 1992, the Supreme
Soviet voted to declare the Soviet government's 1954 grant of Crimea to Ukraine
an illegal act. Russia and Ukraine have conducted negotiations on the issue.
Russia also faced the challenges of
setting up new economic and governmental systems. The government ended price
controls. This action caused prices to soar and resulted in a lower standard of
living for the Russian people. The government issued certificates that citizens
used to buy shares in state-owned firms. President Yeltsin and his government
also took other steps to increase private ownership of businesses.
Opposition to Yeltsin's economic policies
grew in parliament, which included many former Communist Party members and
Soviet Union leaders. In a referendum held in April 1993, a majority of the
voters supported Yeltsin and his economic policies. Opposition to Yeltsin in
parliament continued, however. In September, Yeltsin suspended Vice President
Alexander Rutskoi, who had become a leader of the anti-Yeltsin group.
Later that month, Yeltsin dissolved the
parliament. Parliament, in turn, voted to remove Yeltsin from office and to
make Rutskoi acting president.
Rutskoi and many other foes of Yeltsin,
including Ruslan Khasbulatov and other members of parliament, barricaded
themselves in the parliament building in Moscow. At Yeltsin's order, police
and interior ministry forces blockaded the building, which is known as the
White House. In October, anti-Yeltsin crowds rioted in Moscow and tried
unsuccessfully to break up the blockade of the White House. The next day,
Yeltsin ordered the military to take control of the White House. Rutskoi and
other leaders of the movement against Yeltsin were arrested. Yeltsin then
suspended the Constitutional Court—Russia's highest court—claiming it had
backed the parliament in the dispute.
In December 1993, the Russian people
elected a new parliament. In February 1994, parliament granted an amnesty to
Rutskoi and other opponents of Yeltsin.
Questions
Why did Russian soldiers and civilians
grow increasingly dissatisfied during World War I?
What is the most developed sector of the
Russian economy? Who led the October Revolution?
What is Russia's most popular sport?
What is the most important type of
building in Russian Byzantine architecture?
Who lives in Russia's autonomous
territories?
In what part of Russia do most of the
population live?
Why did Czar Alexander II enact reforms?
What are some major challenges facing
Russia today?
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