Iraq

Baghdad is Iraq's capital and one of the largest cities in the Middle East. Some parts of Baghdad feature modern buildings. Others have narrow, dusty streets and colourful bazaars. The photograph above was taken before the 1991 Persian Gulf War, which damaged much of the city.

                                       

Facts in brief about Iraq

Capital: Baghdad.

Official language: Arabic.

Official name: Al-Jumhuriya Al-lraqiya (Republic of Iraq).

Area: 438,317 km². Greatest distances — north-south, 853 km; east-west, 797 km. Coastline—64 km.

Elevation: Highest— about 3,609 m in Zagros Mountains. Lowest —sea level.

Population: Estimated 1996population— 21,882,000; density, 50 people per km'; distribution, 73 per cent urban, 27 per cent rural. 1987 census— 16,335,199. Estimated2001 population—

25,503,000.

Chief products: Agriculture— barley, dates, grapes, rice, toma­toes, and wheat. Mining— petroleum. Manufacturing— build­ing materials, chemicals, flour, iron and steel, leather goods, petroleum refining, textiles.

National anthem: "Al-Salam Al-jumhuri" ("Salute to the Repub­lic"!.

Money: Currency unit— Iraqi dinar. One dinar= 1,000 fils.

Important dates in Iraq

J500 B.C. The world's first known civilization developed in Mesopotamia, now Iraq.

S39 B.C. The Persians conquered Mesopotamia.

331 B.C. Alexander the Great seized Mesopotamia.

A.D. 227 The Sassanid dynasty of Persia conquered Mesopota­mia.

637 Arab Muslims overthrew the Sassanids.

1258 The Mongols invaded Mesopotamia.

1534 Ottoman Turks seized Mesopotamia.

1920 The League of Nations gave Britain a mandate (order to rule) over Mesopotamia.

1932 The British mandate ended, and Iraq became independ­ent.

1958 Army officers overthrew the Iraqi government and de­clared the country a republic.

1968  Baath Party took control of Iraq's government.

1973  Iraqi government completed its take-over of foreign oil companies in Iraq.

1980 Iraq declared war on Iran.

1988 Iraq and Iran agreed to a cease-fire.

1990 Iraq invaded Kuwait.

1991 A coalition of 39 nations, led by the United States and in­cluding several Middle Eastern and European nations, de­feated Iraq in the Persian Gulf War.

Iraq's flag was adopted in 1991. The Arabic inscription on the white stripe means "God is great."

The coat of arms, adopted in 1965, has an eagle resem­bling a sculpture in the castle of Saladin, an Arab warrior.

Iraq lies in southwestern Asia. It is bordered by Turkey, Iran, the Persian Gulf, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Jordan, and Syria.

Shops in Baghdad offered a wide variety of items before a 1990 United Nations embargo led to shortages.

Craftsmen work on brass pots in Baghdad. Iraqi metalworkers produce beautiful trays, pitchers, and other objects.

Dry grazing land covers much of the northern plain of Iraq. The northern plain lies between the Tigris and Eu­phrates rivers north of the city of Samarra.

Iraqi soldiers drive past government officials, including Presi­dent Saddam Hussein, arm upraised. Before the 1991 Persian Gulf War, Iraq had the fourth-largest army in the world.

Kurdish refugees fled their homes in Iraq in 1991. Many Kurds sought safety in Turkey, Iran, or Iraq's mountains after Iraqi troops put down a Kurdish rebellion that year.

Iraq is an Arab country at the head of the Persian Gulf in southwestern Asia. The country is bordered by Tur­key, Iran, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Jordan, and Syria. Bagh­dad is Iraq's capital and largest city.

The world's first known civilization and other early cultures developed along the Tigris and Euphrates riv­ers in what is now Iraq. The ancient Greeks called part of Iraq and the surrounding region Mesopotamia (be­tween rivers) because it lay between the Tigris and Eu­phrates rivers. For thousands of years, civilizations there have depended on controlling flooding from the two rivers and on using their waters for irrigation.

Iraq became part of the Arab Empire in the A.D. 600's and absorbed Arab Muslim culture. Today, about 75 per cent of Iraq's people are Arabs. Iraq also has a large Kurdish population that has struggled on and off for self-government for many years.

Iraq's economy depends heavily on the export of oil. Income produced by the oil industry has improved liv­ing conditions for Iraq's people.

In the 1980's and the early 1990's, President Saddam Hussein and other leaders of the ruling Baath Party in­volved Iraq in two wars that had devastating effects on the country. Iraq fought a war with Iran from 1980 to 1988, when a cease-fire was declared. In 1990, Iraq in­vaded and occupied neighbouring Kuwait. The United Nations (UNI condemned the invasion and imposed a trade embargo on Iraq. A coalition of 39 nations, includ­ing the United States, Canada, and many Middle Eastern and European nations, opposed the invasion and sent forces to the region. In early 1991, they defeated Iraq in the Persian Gulf War.

Government

National government. Although Iraq's Constitution of 1970 states that Iraq is a republic, the country actually functions as a dictatorship. President Saddam Hussein and other leaders of the ruling Baath Party control all branches of the government. The Baath Party ridded Iraq of its political opponents when it took power in 1968. Since then, the government has restricted the po­litical activity of anyone not belonging to the party or to allied parties. The government has done this partly through its secret police organization.

In September 1991, the government issued a law per­mitting the formation of opposition political parties. But restrictions in the law will probably prevent any signifi­cant challenge to the Baath Party's domination of the government of Iraq.

According to the Constitution, a president heads the Republic of Iraq and is commander of its armed forces. The president is elected to an indefinite term of office by the Revolutionary Command Council (RCC), which is made up of about 10 top officials of the Baath Party. The president chairs the RCC, and the RCC determines gov­ernment policy. A Council of Ministers appointed by the president carries out government operations.

Iraq's legislature, the National Assembly, has 250 members. Adults over the age of 18 elect Assembly members to four-year terms. But the Baath Party con­trols elections through a government-appointed com­mission that determines who is eligible to run for the Assembly. In theory, the Assembly is authorized to ei­ther approve or reject proposals issued by the govern­ment But in practice, the Assembly always approves such proposals.

Local government. Iraq has 18 provinces. The presi­dent appoints a governor for each province and a mayor for each Iraqi city. Three Kurdish provinces had limited self-rule as the Kurdish Autonomous Region from 1974 until 1991, when local government was suspended dur­ing the Persian Gulf War.

Courts. Iraq's judicial system consists of civil and reli­gious courts and special security courts. Civil courts handle cases of civil, commercial, and criminal law. The religious courts deal primarily with family issues, such as divorce and inheritance. Special security courts pros­ecute individuals accused of crimes against the state. The president of Iraq appoints members of the judiciary.

Armed forces. Iraq's armed forces consist of a large army and a smaller air force and navy. Before the Persian Gulf War, the Iraqi army was one of the largest in the world, with an estimated 955,000 troops. All men aged 18 and over must serve in Iraq's military for a period lasting from 21 to 24 months.

People

Population and ancestry. The country's population growth rate of about 3.5 per cent a year is one of the highest in the world. About three-quarters of Iraq's peo­ple live in a fertile plain that extends from Baghdad south along the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. This area has many of the largest cities and towns of Iraq. For Iraq's total population, see the Facts in brief table with this article.

Arabs make up about 75 per cent of Iraq's population. Approximately 20 per cent of the country's people be­long to Iraq's largest ethnic minority, the Kurds. Other ethnic groups in Iraq include Armenians, Assyrians, Tur­komans, and Vazidis.

Language. Iraq's official language is Arabic, which is spoken throughout the country. Kurdish, the language of the Kurds, is official in Kurdish areas.

City life. About three-quarters of Iraq's people live in cities. The number of people living in urban areas has increased dramatically since the 1940's as a result of mi­gration from rural areas. Many people have moved to the cities in search of work. Others fled rural villages and southern Iraqi cities that were heavily damaged in the 1980's during Iraq's war with Iran.

Overflowing urban populations have resulted in se­vere unemployment and housing shortages in some of Iraq's cities.

Wealthy city dwellers work in business and govern­ment. Many of them live in the suburbs. People at middle-income levels earn a living as office workers, craftworkers, and owners of small businesses. Many of them reside in apartment buildings in the cities. A large number of labourers and factory and oil workers com­mute to jobs in Iraq's cities from nearby villages.

Clothing styles vary in cities. The middle-class and rich people generally wear Western-style clothing. Most labourers prefer traditional clothes. For men, these

garments include long cotton gowns and jackets. Tradi­tional dress for women consists of a long, concealing gown and a scarf that covers much of the head.

Rural life. About 30 per cent of Iraq's population lives in the countryside. Many of these people are villag­ers who farm for a living. Most farmers lease land from the government through companies that are largely government-owned. Herders form a small part of rural society. Bedouin nomads (wanderers) herd camels, goats, and sheep in western Iraq. Some Kurds graze livestock in northern Iraq.

Buildings in the rural areas of southern and central Iraq are made of dried mud and brick. In the north, vil­lagers build stone houses.

Clothing in the countryside is traditional. Arab men wear gowns and checked headdresses. Women dress in long black robes, and some veil their faces. Kurdish men wear shirts and baggy trousers with sashes. Kurdish women wear trousers but cover them with a dress.

Food and drink. Iraqis eat a varied diet that includes vegetables, rice, flat bread, meat, fish, and dates. Bread and rice are the main foods at many meals. Grilled lamb, chicken, and fish are popular. Sanbusak, a traditional Iraqi dish, consists of moon-shaped dough stuffed with cheese or meat. Popular beverages in Iraq include tea, coffee, and fruit juices.

Recreation. Iraqis enjoy a variety of sports and games, including soccer, horse racing, backgammon, and chess. Weddings and other family events are occa­sions for traditional folk dances and songs.

Religion. About 95 per cent of Iraq's people are Mus­lims. More than half of the country's Muslims are Shiites (members of the Shiah branch of Islam). The other Mus­lims belong to the Sunni sect. Most Arabs living south­east of Baghdad are Shiites. Central and southwestern Iraq is a mixture of Sunni and Shiite Arab populations. The Kurds are Sunnis. Christians and other groups make up about 5 per cent of the Iraqi population. Most high- ranking members of Iraq's ruling Baath Party are Arab Sunni Muslims. Many Shiites resent the Sunni monop­oly on governmental power.

Education. Children in Iraq must attend school until

the age of 12. About 40 per cent of them continue their education in vocational or secondary schools. About 14 per cent of adults from the ages of 20 to 24 attend col leges or universities. Iraq has universities in Al Basrah, Baghdad, Irbil, Mosul, and Tikrit. A higher percentage of men than women attend colleges and universities in Iraq.

About 55 per cent of Iraq's adult population can read and write. The percentage is increasing as a result of government literacy programmes.

Land

Iraq has four major land regions: (1) the northern plain, (2) the southern plain, (3) the mountains, and (4) the desert.

The northern plain, a region of dry, rolling land, lies between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers north of the city of Samarra. The highest hills in the area rise about 300 metres above sea level. There are a small number of farming villages in the northern plain.

The southern plain begins near Samarra and ex­tends southeast to the Persian Gulf. It includes the fertile delta between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, where a large number of Iraq's people live. The Tigris and Eu­phrates meet at the town of Al Qurnah and form the Shaft al Arab River, which empties into the gulf. Some of Iraq's major oil fields are located between the Shatt al Arab and the border with Kuwait.

Complex dam and irrigation systems control the flow of water in the southern plain. This control of water has increased agricultural productivity and allowed for more permanent human settlement, especially north of Al Kut. Much of the region south of Al Kut is swamp­land, due to frequent flooding and poor drainage.

The mountains of northeast Iraq are part of a range that is called the Zagros in Iran and Iraq and the Taurus in Turkey. The mountains rise to more than 3,000 metres near Iraq's borders with Iran and Turkey. Kurds live in the region's foothills and valleys. Valuable oil fields lie near the cities of Mosul and Kirkuk.

The desert covers southwestern and western Iraq. Most of this region of limestone hills and sand dunes is part of the Syrian Desert, which stretches into Syria, Jor­dan, and Saudi Arabia. Scattered throughout the desert are wadis— valleys that are dry most of the year but be­come rivers after a rain.

Climate

Iraq's climate ranges from moderate in the north to semitropical in the east and southeast. The west and southwest have a desert climate—warm or hot days and much cooler nights. Summer high temperatures aver­age more than 38 °C throughout much of Iraq. Winter low temperatures may drop to around 2 °C in the desert and in the north.

In general, little rain falls in Iraq. Average annual pre­cipitation ranges from 13 centimetres of rain in the de­sert to 38 centimetres of rain and snow in the northern mountains. Most of the precipitation falls between No­vember and April.

Economy

The export of oil has played a vital role in Iraq's econ­omy since the 1950's. The government, which owns or controls most sectors of the economy, has used some of Iraq's oil income to improve living conditions in the country and to develop the agricultural sector. Iraq has tried to become less dependent on oil exports by ex­panding the rest of its industrial sector.

During the 1970's, Iraq's economy prospered under state control. But both the war with Iran and the Persian Gulf War greatly damaged the economy. Trade routes were disrupted, ports were closed, and factories were destroyed. In addition, the UN trade embargo of August 1990 halted all oil exports from Iraq.

Industry, which includes mining, manufacturing, and construction, accounts for 38 per cent of Iraq's gross do­mestic product (GDP). The GDP is the total value of all goods and services produced within a country in a year. Mining, manufacturing, and construction employ 33 per cent of Iraq's workers.

Oil is the chief mineral resource of Iraq. Iraq was once the second-largest producer of oil in the Middle East. In the early 1980's, the oil industry accounted for about 60 per cent of the country's GDP. But war dam­aged many of the country's oil reservoirs, pipelines, and refineries and interfered with the oil trade. Iraq's major fields are located in southern Iraq near the Kuwait border, and west of the city of Kirkuk in the north. Other natural resources mined in Iraq include phosphates, sulphur, and natural gas.

Until Iraq's refineries were damaged in the Persian Gulf War, the country's largest manufacturing industry was oil refining and petrochemical production. Several of Iraq's chemical and oil plants are located near the cit­ies of Al Basrah, Baiji, and Kirkuk. The country has ex­ported much of its oil through pipelines that run through Lebanon, Syria, and Turkey. Other factories in Iraq process farm products or make such goods as cloth, soap, and beverages. Still others produce cement, iron, and steel.

Service industries account for 46 per cent of Iraq's GDP. About 55 per cent of the country's workers have jobs in the service sector. The government employs about 25 per cent of the work force. Other major service industries in Iraq include banking and property.

Agriculture. Iraq was importing about 70 per cent of its food before the 1990 UN trade embargo. Agriculture accounts for 16 per cent of the GDP and employs about 12 per cent of Iraq's work force. The government has in­vested heavily in agriculture. But poor organization and a lack of labour and private investment have hampered growth. Major crops harvested in Iraq include barley, dates, grapes, rice, tomatoes, and wheat. Many farmers lease their land from the government.

Energy sources. Oil and natural gas are the main sources of energy. Until the 1991 Persian Gulf War, elec­tricity was widely available in Iraq.

Foreign trade. Before the 1990 UN trade embargo, oil accounted for most of Iraq's exports. Iraq's major im­ports included military weapons.

Transportation and communication. A govern­ment-owned airline links Baghdad with other major cit­ies in Iraq, the Middle East, and Europe. Roads and rail­ways connect Iraq's largest cities to one another. The country's largest port is Umm Qasr on the Persian Gulf.

The shipping facilities at Al Basrah, once a major port, have been closed since Iraq's war with Iran. A large number of Iraqis depend on public transportation be­cause they cannot afford cars. Over shorter distances in the cities, many people use bicycles. In the countryside, people often use buses, donkeys, and camels for trans­portation.

Six daily newspapers—four in Arabic, one in Kurdish, and one in English—are published in Iraq. About 1 out of every 15 Iraqis owns a television set. Many more peo­ple have radios. The government controls all radio and TV broadcasting that originates in Iraq, but Iraqis can pick up radio broadcasts from other countries.

History

Early days. The world's first known civilization devel­oped in Sumer, now southeastern Iraq, about 3500 B.C. Sumer was part of Mesopotamia, an area that included most of present-day Iraq and parts of Syria and Turkey. Other ancient civilizations, including Assyria and Baby­lonia, flourished along the Tigris and Euphrates rivers between about 3500 and 539 B.C. See Assyria; Babylo­nia; Mesopotamia; Sumer.

In 539 B.C, the Persians conquered Mesopotamia. Greek and Macedonian armies under Alexander the Great took the area from the Persians in 331 B.C. Greek rule continued until the Parthians, from Turkestan, took control in 126 B.C. Except for brief periods of Roman rule, the Parthians controlled Mesopotamia until A.D. 227. That year, the Persian Sassanid dynasty (family of rulers) seized Mesopotamia. The Sassanids ruled the re­gion for about 400 years.

Arab rule. The birth of Islam in the A.D. 600's in­spired Arab Muslims to conquer the Sassanids in 637. The Arabs brought the Arabic language and the new Is­lamic religion to Mesopotamia. In 752, the ruling Ab-basid dynasty established the new capital of the Arab Empire near the small village of Baghdad. Under the Ab-basids, Arab civilization reached great heights. By 800, Baghdad had grown into a city of more than 1 million people and was a world centre of trade and culture.

In 1258, Mongols from central Asia invaded Mesopo­tamia and destroyed the Arab Empire. The Mongols neglected Mesopotamia, and the region deteriorated culturally and economically under their rule.

Ottoman control. Ottoman Turks from central Asia seized Mesopotamia in 1534 and made it part of their empire. By the late 1600's, Ottoman control had weak­ened, and Arab leaders began to dominate local politics within Mesopotamia.

During the 1700's and 1800's, the Ottoman Empire de­clined in power and size in the face of new, strong na­tions that developed in Europe. Great Britain became in­volved in the Persian Gulf in the 1800's to protect its trade routes with India, which was then under British rule. By World War I (1914-1918), Britain had become in­terested in Mesopotamia's oil resources.

British rule. British troops took Mesopotamia from the Ottoman Turks during World War I. In 1920, the League of Nations, a forerunner to the United Nations, gave Britain a mandate (order to rule) over the area. The British set up a new government in Mesopotamia in 1921. They renamed the country Iraq and chose an Arab prince as King Faisal I.

During the 1920's, British advisers retained positions in the Iraqi government, and the British controlled Iraq's army, foreign policy, finances, and oil resources. Some Iraqis opposed British involvement, and a movement for independence developed.

independence. Under pressure from Iraq's inde­pendence movement, Great Britain signed a treaty with Iraq in 1930. In the treaty, Britain promised military pro­tection and eventual independence for Iraq. In return, Iraq promised Britain continued use of British air bases in Iraq. It also agreed to use foreign advisers from Brit­ain only. The British mandate over Iraq ended in 1932, and Iraq became an independent nation.

In the 1930's, Iraq's politicians disagreed over the alli­ance with Great Britain. King Faisal worked to balance the interests of Iraq's political factions and to unify the country's various ethnic and religious groups. Faisal died in 1933. His son Ghazi became king. Ghazi was a weak ruler, and tribal and ethnic rebellions broke out. In 1936, anti-British groups in the army took control of the government, though Ghazi officially was still king. Ghazi died in a car accident in 1939. His 3-year-old son, Faisal II, became king, but the boy's uncle, Prince Abdullah, ruled for him.

In 1940 and 1941, during World War II, Iraqi govern­ment leaders and army officers sought an alliance with the Axis powers—Germany, Italy, and Japan—in an at­tempt to end British influence in Iraq. Britain attempted to use Iraq as a military base under the provisions of the 1930 treaty, and an armed conflict broke out. The British defeated the Iraqi army in 1941, and the pro-Axis leaders fled the country.

Iraq declared war on the Axis in 1943. Inflation and supply shortages brought on by World War II trans­formed Iraq's society and economy. A wide economic gap developed between the rich and poor. Many Iraqi people blamed the government for their economic situ­ation.

Iraq helped found the Arab League, an association of Arab nations, in 1945. In 1948, Iraq joined other mem­bers of the league in a war against the newly created na­tion of Israel. The defeat of the Arabs touched off dem­onstrations in Iraq and other Arab countries.

The 1950's. In 1950 and 1952, the government of Iraq signed new agreements with foreign oil companies. The 1952 agreement gave Iraq 50 per cent of the profits from oil drilled there. As a result of these agreements, Iraq's oil revenues rose dramatically. The government used some of this money to build hospitals, irrigation proj­ects, roads, and schools. But the increased amount of money coming into Iraq also caused serious inflation.

Faisal II took full power in 1953 at the age of 18. Dur­ing the 1950's, opposition to the monarchy grew stead­ily. Many Iraqis wanted a voice in government, and oth­ers felt that they had not benefited enough from the country's oil profits.

In addition, a large number of Iraqis opposed the government's ties to the West. In particular, they ob­jected to the Baghdad Pact—a British-supported mutual defence agreement the Iraqi government signed with Iran, Pakistan, and Turkey in 1955. Many Iraqis also felt that the government's ties with the West went against the political movement called Pan-Arabism. Advocates of Pan-Arabism believed that Arab countries should strive for political unity and be free of outside influence In 1958, army officers overthrew the government and declared Iraq a republic. The rebels killed King Faisal and Prince Abdul llah.

The republic. The army officers set up a three-man Sovereignty Council consisting of a Shiite Arab, a Kurd, and a Sunni Arab. The council issued a temporary con­stitution giving a cabinet the power to rule by decree with the council s approval. General Abdul Karim Kassem (also spelled Qasim), who led the revolution, be­came Iraq's premier. Fie reversed Iraq's pro-West policy and accepted both economic and military aid from Com­munist countries. Kassem set up land reform pro­grammes aimed at narrowing the gap between rich and poor. Fie also worked to develop industry in Iraq.

In 1961, Kurdish leaders asked Kassem to give the Kurds complete autonomy (self-government) within Iraq and a share of the revenues from oil fields in northern Iraq. Kassem rejected the plan. In response, the Kurds revolted. A cease-fire was finally declared in 1964.

In 1963, army officers and members of the Baath Party assassinated Kassem. The Baath Party took control of the country and named Abdul Salam Arif president and Ahmed Hasan al-Bakr prime minister. Both were army officers. Later that year, Arif used the military to take over the government. Arif died in 1966, and his brother, Abdul Rahman Arif, became president. The Arifs fol­lowed socialist economic policies.

Al-Bakr overthrew Arif in 1968 and reestablished Baath control. The Baath Party quickly began to domi­nate all aspects of Iraqi politics. Party leaders wrote a new constitution in 1970 that institutionalized the party's control of the government. Al-Bakr supported further socialist economic reform and stronger ties with the So­viet Union. During al-Bakr's presidency, Saddam Hus­sein, who held important party and government posts, gained influence within the government.

In 1973, the Iraqi government completed a take-over of foreign oil companies in the country. After oil prices increased dramatically later that year, Iraq made huge profits.

In 1970, al-Bakr signed an agreement with the Kurds ending eight years of on-and-off fighting. In the agree­ment, the government promised that beginning in 1974 the Kurds would have self-rule and several positions in the government. New fighting erupted in 1974, after the Kurds objected to revisions in the agreement. The re­vised agreement established limited autonomy for the Kurds in the Kurdish Autonomous Region in northern Iraq. Government forces had largely defeated the Kurds by March 1975, when a cease-fire was declared. But fighting between Kurds and government forces has con­tinued since then.

Al-Bakr resigned the presidency in 1979. Saddam Hus­sein succeeded him as president.

War with Iran. In September 1980, Iraq invaded Iran, and war broke out between the two countries. The war resulted in part from boundary disputes, from Iran's support for the rebellious Kurds, and from the efforts of Shiite leaders in Iran to incite rebellion in Iraq's Shiite population. In addition, Iraqi leaders believed Iran had become somewhat unstable as a result of its 1979 revo­lution. They felt Iran's weakened position offered Iraq an opportunity to increase its power in the region.

The war lasted eight years. An estimated 150,000 Iraqi soldiers died, and Iranian air attacks on major cities wounded and killed many of Iraq's civilians. The war also severely damaged Iraq's economy. Bombs dam­aged oil facilities in southern Iraq, and trade through the Persian Gulf was disrupted. Iraq and Iran finally agreed on a cease-fire in August 1988.

During the war with Iran, Iraq's Kurds supported Iran against the Iraqi government. In 1987 and 1988, the Iraqi government lashed out against the Kurds. The army re­leased poison gas in Kurdish villages, killing thousands of people. There also were reports that the army de­stroyed several Kurdish towns and that the inhabitants fled to Turkey and Iran.

The Persian Gulf War. In August 1990, Iraqi forces invaded and occupied Kuwait. Before the invasion, Hus­sein had accused Kuwait of violating oil production lim­its set by the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Coun­tries (OPEC), thus lowering the worldwide price of oil. In addition, Iraq and Kuwait had disagreed over territory and over Iraq's multibillion dollar debt to Kuwait. The UN called for Iraq to withdraw from Kuwait and passed a resolution stating that all nations should stop trading with Iraq, except for food and medical supplies under certain circumstances. A coalition of 39 countries, in­cluding the United States and the United Kingdom, op­posed the invasion and sent military forces to the Per­sian Gulf region. A number of coalition members stationed troops in Saudi Arabia to defend that country against a possible Iraqi invasion.

In November 1990, the UN Security Council approved the use of force to remove Iraqi troops from Kuwait if they did not leave by Jan. 15,1991. Iraq refused to with­draw, and war broke out between the allied forces and Iraq early on January 17 Baghdad time. The United States and its allies bombed Iraqi military targets in Iraq and Kuwait. Iraq launched missiles against Saudi Arabia and Israel. On February 24, allied land forces began moving into Iraq and Kuwait. They defeated the Iraqi army after 100 hours of fighting. On February 28, U.S. President George Bush declared a halt to all allied mili­tary operations.

The Persian Gulf War had a devastating effect on Iraq. Estimates of Iraqi soldiers killed in the war range from about 1,500 to as many as 100,000. Tens of thousands of civilians were also probably killed during the hostilities and in the aftermath of the war. Allied air raids de­stroyed roads, bridges, factories, and oil industry facili­ties and disrupted electric, telephone, and water serv­ice. Diseases spread through contaminated drinking water because water purification and sewage treatment facilities could not operate without electricity. Also, the trade embargo caused serious economic problems.

Recent developments. In March 1991, Kurdish and

Shiite uprisings broke out. By April, Iraqi troops put down most of the rebellions. However, some fighting continued. Refugees flooded into Iran and Turkey. Allied forces set up a safety zone in northern Iraq to protect the Kurds. The UN helped administer the safety zone. The last allied troops left the region in mid-July. The .  Kurds began negotiations with Hussein for greater self rule in Iraq. But negotiations broke off when Iraq ordered an economic blockade of the Kurdish region.

Iraq accepted the terms of a formal cease-fire agree­ment on April 6. On April 11, the UN Security Council of­ficially declared an end to the war. In the cease-fire agreement, Iraq promised to pay Kuwait for war dam­ages. Iraq also agreed io the destruction of all its biolog­ical and chemical weapons, its facilities for producing such weapons, and any facilities or materials it might have for producing nuclear weapons. After the formal cease-fire, the UN continued the embargo to pressure Iraq to carry out its agreements.

In September 1991, under the terms of the agree­ment, the UN sent a team of experts to assess Iraq's abil­ity to produce nuclear weapons. They found that Iraq's development programme was more advanced than pre­viously thought.

Iraq had also been staging air attacks against Shiites in southern Iraq who continued to oppose the Iraqi gov­ernment. In August 1992, to protect the Shiites, the allies imposed a ban on Iraqi military and civilian aircraft over the region. U.S., UK, and French planes patrolled the re­gion. The safety zone that had been set up in the Kurdish region also included a flight ban. The areas where flights were banned came to be called "no-fly" zones.

By mid-1994, Iraq had not fulfilled the terms of the cease-fire agreement. The UN continued its trade em­bargo to pressure Iraq to comply.

Related articles: Kurds, Kuwait, Mesopotamia, Middle East, Nineveh, Persian Gulf War, Syrian Desert, Tigris River United Nations (The Iran-lraq War)

Questions

Who serves as the head of Iraq's armed forces?

Where do most of Iraq's people live?

What is Iraq's most important mineral?

What are the country's chief agricultural products?

Which ancient civilization developed in what is now Iraq?

What effect did Mongolian rule have on Mesopotamia?

Why have many Iraqis moved to urban areas?

How has Iraq used its oil income?

How did the Persian Gulf War affect Iraq's economy?
What is Iraq's most fertile region?

Mesopotamia in­cluded the area that is now eastern Syria, southeastern Turkey, and most of Iraq. It extended from the Taurus Mountains in the north to the Persian Gulf in the south, and from the Zagros Mountains in the east to the Syrian Desert in the west. But the heart of the region was the land between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. The name Mesopotamia comes from a Greek word meaning be­tween rivers.

Northern Mesopotamia was a plateau that had a mild climate. Parts of it received enough rain for crops to grow. In southern Mesopotamia, a plain of fertile soil left by floodwaters of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers provided rich farmland. But long, hot summers and little rain there made irrigation necessary for agriculture.

The oldest known communities in northern Mesopo­tamia were villages established in the Zagros foothills by about 7000 B.G Traces of villages in far southern Mesopotamia date from the 5000's B.G Sometime be­fore 3500 B.G, new settlers arrived in this region. Schol­ars do not know where these people originally came from, but the area they settled became known as Sumer. About 3500 B.G, the Sumerians began to build the world's first cities and to develop its first civilization.

About the same time, the Sumerians invented the world's first system of writing. This system, using word- pictures, developed into a system of wedge-shaped characters called cuneiform (see Cuneiform).

During the 2300's B.G, people originally from the west called Akkadians conquered Sumer. The invaders were Semites—that is, people who spoke a language re­lated to Arabic and Hebrew. The Akkadians and other Semites formed empires that ruled Mesopotamia for much of the period between 2300 and 539 B.G These Semitic groups included the Babylonians, Assyrians, and Amorites.

In 539 B.G, Mesopotamia became part of the Persian Empire. The Macedonian ruler Alexander the Great con­quered the Persians in 331 B.G Later, the Seleucids, Parthians, Romans, Sassanids, Arabs, and Mongols ruled Mesopotamia. In A.D. 1534, the Ottoman Turks seized the region. Mesopotamia remained part of the Ottoman Empire until the British occupied the area during World War 1 (1914-1918). In 1921, most of Mesopotamia be­came part of the newly created nation of Iraq.

Related articles: Architecture (Mesopotamian), Iraq Assyria, Mitanni, Babylonia. Ancient Persia, Chaldea, Sumer, Euphrates River, and Tigris River

Mitanni was an ancient kingdom in northern Mesopo­tamia. The kingdom was located in what is now south­eastern Turkey. The Mitannians used horses, and were skilled in the use of chariots in war. The Hittites learned howto use chariots in warfare from the Mitannians.

In the 1400's B.C, the Mitannians fought the Egyptians for control of Syria. But both kingdoms feared the rise of Hittite power. A Mitannian princess married into the

Egyptian royal family as a sign of unity. About 1370 B.C., however, the Hittites defeated the Mitannians Civil war  further weakened them, and the kingdom was finally absorbed into the Assyrian Empire by about 1350 B.C.